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[1] [2] [3] This therapeutic approach emerged at the beginning of the 20th century but was progressively replaced by the use of antibiotics in most parts of the world after the Second World War. Bacteriophages, known as phages, are a form of virus [4] that attach to bacterial cells and inject their genome into the cell. [5]
Production problems were most likely due to the attempt to mass-produce phages when they were barely understood. The phages may have been damaged and/or too low in concentration. Another possibility is that incorrect diagnoses led to the use of the irrelevant types of phages that were not adapted to the host bacteria of interest. Many studies ...
George Eliava pioneered the use of phages in treating bacterial infections. Phages were discovered to be antibacterial agents and were used in the former Soviet Republic of Georgia (pioneered there by Giorgi Eliava with help from the co-discoverer of bacteriophages, Félix d'Hérelle) during the 1920s and 1930s for treating bacterial infections.
Many of the leaders of the emerging field of molecular biology were alumni of the phage course, which continued to be taught through the 1950s and 1960s. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] In 1995, Millard Susman published a retrospective article on the phage course as it was given over the years (1945 – 1970) both at Cold Spring Harbor (New York) and at the ...
Phages make up the majority of most viromes and are currently understood as being the most abundant organism. [5] Oftentimes scientists will look only at a phageome instead of a virome while conducting research. Variations due to many factors have also been explored such as diet, age, and geography.
Use of hydrogen cyanide as a pesticide or cleaner has been banned or restricted in some countries. [51] Most hydrogen cyanide is used in industrial processes, made by companies in Germany, Japan, the Netherlands and the US. [52] [53] Degesch resumed production of Zyklon B after the war. The product was sold as Cyanosil in Germany and Zyklon in ...
Biological weapons were used against Chinese soldiers and civilians in several military campaigns. [43] In 1940, the Japanese Army Air Force bombed Ningbo with ceramic bombs full of fleas carrying the bubonic plague. [44] Many of these operations were ineffective due to inefficient delivery systems, [42] although up to 400,000 people may have ...
The ensuing Black Death may have killed up to 25 million total, including China and roughly a third of the population of Europe and in the next decades, changing the course of Asian and European history. Biologicals were extensively used in many parts of Africa from the sixteenth century AD, most of the time in the form of poisoned arrows, or ...