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The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Christian Latin Church in the medieval period.The best known of these military expeditions are those to the Holy Land between 1095 and 1291 that had the objective of reconquering Jerusalem and its surrounding area from Muslim rule after the region had been conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate ...
The crusade came to Germany in 1241, when Archbishops Conrad of Cologne and Siegfried III of Mainz invaded Hohenstaufen lands in the Wetterau. A major turning point was the deposition of Frederick II by Pope Innocent IV at the First Council of Lyon in 1245. This sparked a period of intense crusading in Germany after May 1246. [5]
The Crusaders were ultimately unable to defeat Muslim forces in the last Crusade.As the result, Jerusalem remained under Muslim control. [4]Upon his death, Frederick's German crusading host, totaling perhaps 12,000 to 15,000 men, mostly disbanded and a much smaller contingent led by Frederick's son Duke Frederick VI of Swabia continued to the Holy Land, [5] [6] where they joined the Siege of Acre.
The numbering of this crusade followed the same history as the first ones, with English histories such as David Hume's The History of England (1754–1761) [43] and Charles Mills' History of the Crusades for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy Land (1820) [44] identifying it as the Third Crusade. The former only considers the follow-on ...
Other current researchers include Christopher Tyerman (born 1953) whose God's War: A New History of the Crusades (2006) [208] is regarded as the definitive account of all the crusades. In his An Eyewitness History of the Crusades (2004), [209] Tyerman provides the history of the crusades told from original eyewitness sources, both Christian and ...
The German historian Carl Erdmann presented a significant challenge, theorising that crusading was a political ideology within Western society rather than a glamourised frontier conflict. In 1965 Hans Eberhard Mayer's Geschichte der Kreuzzuge —History of the Crusades— raised questions of the definition of crusading. Riley-Smith straddled ...
Since Charlemagne, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. [35] The term sacrum ("holy", in the sense of "consecrated") in connection with the medieval Roman Empire was used beginning in 1157 under Frederick I Barbarossa ("Holy Empire"): the term was added to reflect Frederick's ambition to dominate Italy and the Papacy. [36]
His research also emphasizes the importance of including popular crusades and unsanctioned outbreaks in the broader study of the crusading movement, arguing that rigid definitions can obscure the complexity and variety of the phenomenon. He notes that historians have "reinvented" or reinterpreted the crusades throughout history. [102] [103]