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The word problem for an algebra is then to determine, given two expressions (words) involving the generators and operations, whether they represent the same element of the algebra modulo the identities. The word problems for groups and semigroups can be phrased as word problems for algebras. [1]
A 2×2 real and symmetric matrix representing a stretching and shearing of the plane. The eigenvectors of the matrix (red lines) are the two special directions such that every point on them will just slide on them. The example here, based on the Mona Lisa, provides a simple illustration. Each point on the painting can be represented as a vector ...
For two convex polygons P and Q in the plane with m and n vertices, their Minkowski sum is a convex polygon with at most m + n vertices and may be computed in time O(m + n) by a very simple procedure, which may be informally described as follows. Assume that the edges of a polygon are given and the direction, say, counterclockwise, along the ...
Given an n × n square matrix A of real or complex numbers, an eigenvalue λ and its associated generalized eigenvector v are a pair obeying the relation [1] =,where v is a nonzero n × 1 column vector, I is the n × n identity matrix, k is a positive integer, and both λ and v are allowed to be complex even when A is real.l When k = 1, the vector is called simply an eigenvector, and the pair ...
Word problem from the Līlāvatī (12th century), with its English translation and solution. In science education, a word problem is a mathematical exercise (such as in a textbook, worksheet, or exam) where significant background information on the problem is presented in ordinary language rather than in mathematical notation.
An alternative approach, e.g., defining the normal matrix as = of size , takes advantage of the fact that for a given matrix with orthonormal columns the eigenvalue problem of the Rayleigh–Ritz method for the matrix = = can be interpreted as a singular value problem for the matrix . This interpretation allows simple simultaneous calculation ...
Spectral graph theory emerged in the 1950s and 1960s. Besides graph theoretic research on the relationship between structural and spectral properties of graphs, another major source was research in quantum chemistry, but the connections between these two lines of work were not discovered until much later. [15]
A generalized eigenvalue problem (second sense) is the problem of finding a (nonzero) vector v that obeys = where A and B are matrices. If v obeys this equation, with some λ , then we call v the generalized eigenvector of A and B (in the second sense), and λ is called the generalized eigenvalue of A and B (in the second sense) which ...