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In these examples, the (negative) least absolute remainder is obtained from the least positive remainder by subtracting 5, which is d. This holds in general. When dividing by d, either both remainders are positive and therefore equal, or they have opposite signs. If the positive remainder is r 1, and the negative one is r 2, then r 1 = r 2 + d.
In computing, the modulo operation returns the remainder or signed remainder of a division, after one number is divided by another, called the modulus of the operation.. Given two positive numbers a and n, a modulo n (often abbreviated as a mod n) is the remainder of the Euclidean division of a by n, where a is the dividend and n is the divisor.
Long division is the standard algorithm used for pen-and-paper division of multi-digit numbers expressed in decimal notation. It shifts gradually from the left to the right end of the dividend, subtracting the largest possible multiple of the divisor (at the digit level) at each stage; the multiples then become the digits of the quotient, and the final difference is then the remainder.
Modular exponentiation can be performed with a negative exponent e by finding the modular multiplicative inverse d of b modulo m using the extended Euclidean algorithm. That is: c = b e mod m = d −e mod m, where e < 0 and b ⋅ d ≡ 1 (mod m). Modular exponentiation is efficient to compute, even for very large integers.
r 0 ← r 1 ← r 2 ← r 3 ← r 4 ← r 5 ← r ... an intermediate remainder can be calculated by first computing the CRC of the message modulo a sparse polynomial ...
The following table shows how the extended Euclidean algorithm proceeds with input 240 and 46.The greatest common divisor is the last non zero entry, 2 in the column "remainder".
r N−3 = q N−1 r N−2 + r N−1. because it divides both terms on the right-hand side of the equation. Iterating the same argument, r N−1 divides all the preceding remainders, including a and b. None of the preceding remainders r N−2, r N−3, etc. divide a and b, since they leave a remainder. Since r N−1 is a common divisor of a and ...
The constants R mod N and R 3 mod N can be generated as REDC(R 2 mod N) and as REDC((R 2 mod N)(R 2 mod N)). The fundamental operation is to compute REDC of a product. When standalone REDC is needed, it can be computed as REDC of a product with 1 mod N. The only place where a direct reduction modulo N is necessary is in the precomputation of R ...