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Liquid water and ice emit radiation at a higher rate than water vapour (see graph above). Water at the top of the troposphere, particularly in liquid and solid states, cools as it emits net photons to space. Neighboring gas molecules other than water (e.g. nitrogen) are cooled by passing their heat kinetically to the water.
As of December 2015, the confirmed liquid water in the Solar System outside Earth is 25–50 times the volume of Earth's water (1.3 billion km 3), [10] i.e. about 3.25–6.5 × 10 10 km 3 (32.5 to 65 billion km 3) and 3.25–6.5 × 10 19 tons (32.5 to 65 billion billion tons) of water.
Sequencing technologies vary in the length of reads produced. Reads of length 20-40 base pairs (bp) are referred to as ultra-short. [2] Typical sequencers produce read lengths in the range of 100-500 bp. [3] However, Pacific Biosciences platforms produce read lengths of approximately 1500 bp. [4] Read length is a factor which can affect the results of biological studies. [5]
Therefore, the total number of reads generated in a single experiment is typically normalized by converting counts to fragments, reads, or counts per million mapped reads (FPM, RPM, or CPM). The difference between RPM and FPM was historically derived during the evolution from single-end sequencing of fragments to paired-end sequencing.
The magnitude, denoted by S, divided by the speed of light is the density of the linear momentum per unit area (pressure) of the electromagnetic field. So, dimensionally, the Poynting vector is S = power / area = rate of doing work / area = Δ F / Δ t Δ x / area , which is the speed of light, c = Δ x / Δ t ...
The interactions between the components of the ISS Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) The International Space Station (ISS) Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) is a life support system that provides or controls atmospheric pressure, fire detection and suppression, oxygen levels, proper ventilation, waste management and water supply.
This equation is completely coordinate- and metric-independent and says that the electromagnetic flux through a closed two-dimensional surface in space–time is topological, more precisely, depends only on its homology class (a generalization of the integral form of Gauss law and Maxwell–Faraday equation, as the homology class in Minkowski ...
Any cometary water (including dormant, transitional objects) would be additional. [88] [89] Not only are asteroids sufficient, but micrometeoroids/dust particles have the required water content; conversely, many of the asteroids in Mercury-crossing orbits may actually be defunct comets. [90]