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  2. Quadratic residue - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_residue

    The quadratic excess E (p) is the number of quadratic residues on the range (0, p /2) minus the number in the range (p /2, p) (sequence A178153 in the OEIS). For p congruent to 1 mod 4, the excess is zero, since −1 is a quadratic residue and the residues are symmetric under r ↔ p − r.

  3. Pell's equation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pell's_equation

    Pell's equation. Pell's equation for n = 2 and six of its integer solutions. Pell's equation, also called the Pell–Fermat equation, is any Diophantine equation of the form where n is a given positive nonsquare integer, and integer solutions are sought for x and y. In Cartesian coordinates, the equation is represented by a hyperbola; solutions ...

  4. Pocklington's algorithm - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocklington's_algorithm

    Pocklington's algorithm. Pocklington's algorithm is a technique for solving a congruence of the form. where x and a are integers and a is a quadratic residue . The algorithm is one of the first efficient methods to solve such a congruence. It was described by H.C. Pocklington in 1917.

  5. Conjugate gradient method - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_gradient_method

    Conjugate gradient, assuming exact arithmetic, converges in at most n steps, where n is the size of the matrix of the system (here n = 2). In mathematics, the conjugate gradient method is an algorithm for the numerical solution of particular systems of linear equations, namely those whose matrix is positive-semidefinite.

  6. Quadratic residuosity problem - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_residuosity_problem

    The quadratic residuosity problem (QRP[1]) in computational number theory is to decide, given integers and , whether is a quadratic residue modulo or not. Here for two unknown primes and , and is among the numbers which are not obviously quadratic non-residues (see below). The problem was first described by Gauss in his Disquisitiones ...

  7. Quadratic equation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_equation

    Quadratic equation. In mathematics, a quadratic equation (from Latin quadratus ' square ') is an equation that can be rearranged in standard form as [1] where x represents an unknown value, and a, b, and c represent known numbers, where a ≠ 0. (If a = 0 and b ≠ 0 then the equation is linear, not quadratic.)

  8. Quadratic irrational number - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_irrational_number

    In mathematics, a quadratic irrational number (also known as a quadratic irrational or quadratic surd) is an irrational number that is the solution to some quadratic equation with rational coefficients which is irreducible over the rational numbers. [1] Since fractions in the coefficients of a quadratic equation can be cleared by multiplying ...

  9. Gauss's lemma (number theory) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss's_lemma_(number_theory)

    Gauss's lemma (number theory) Condition under which an integer is a quadratic residue. Gauss's lemma in number theory gives a condition for an integer to be a quadratic residue. Although it is not useful computationally, it has theoretical significance, being involved in some proofs of quadratic reciprocity.

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