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A correlation coefficient is a numerical measure of some type of linear correlation, meaning a statistical relationship between two variables. [a] The variables may be two columns of a given data set of observations, often called a sample, or two components of a multivariate random variable with a known distribution. [citation needed]
The correlation coefficient is +1 in the case of a perfect direct (increasing) linear relationship (correlation), −1 in the case of a perfect inverse (decreasing) linear relationship (anti-correlation), [5] and some value in the open interval (,) in all other cases, indicating the degree of linear dependence between the variables. As it ...
Pearson's correlation coefficient is the covariance of the two variables divided by the product of their standard deviations. The form of the definition involves a "product moment", that is, the mean (the first moment about the origin) of the product of the mean-adjusted random variables; hence the modifier product-moment in the name.
Citation pollution: the infiltration of retracted research, or fake research, being cited in legitimate research, but negatively impacting on the validity of the research. [53] It is due to various factors, including the publication race and the concerning rise in unscrupulous business practices related to so-called predatory or deceptive ...
These are used together with full citations, which are listed in a separate "References" section or provided in an earlier footnote. Forms of short citations used include author-date referencing (APA style, Harvard style, or Chicago style), and author-title or author-page referencing (MLA style or Chicago style). As before, the list of ...
A few studies have found a negative correlation between religiosity and criminality. A 2001 meta-analysis found, "religious beliefs and behaviors exert a moderate deterrent effect on individuals' criminal behavior", but that "studies have systematically varied in their estimation of the religion-on-crime effect due to differences in both their ...
In patent law, the citation of previous works, or prior art, helps establish the uniqueness of the invention being described. The focus in this practice is to claim originality for commercial purposes, and so the author is motivated to avoid citing works that cast doubt on their originality. This does not appear to be "scientific" citation.
A citation graph (or citation network), in information science and bibliometrics, is a directed graph that describes the citations within a collection of documents. Each vertex (or node ) in the graph represents a document in the collection, and each edge is directed from one document toward another that it cites (or vice versa depending on the ...