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With California introducing the Sustainable Groundwater Management Act in 2014, new estimations of subsidence based on water usage plans have revealed that stretches of the California Aqueduct are still at a substantially high risk of subsidence. These projections range from 10-15 feet of subsidence in the most at risk areas. [16]
Subsidence frequently causes major problems in karst terrains, where dissolution of limestone by fluid flow in the subsurface creates voids (i.e., caves).If the roof of a void becomes too weak, it can collapse and the overlying rock and earth will fall into the space, causing subsidence at the surface.
Groundwater-related subsidence is the subsidence (or the sinking) of land resulting from unsustainable groundwater extraction.It is a growing problem in the developing world as cities increase in population and water use, without adequate pumping regulation and enforcement.
Drivers, processes, and impacts of sinking cities [1]. Sinking cities are urban environments that are in danger of disappearing due to their rapidly changing landscapes.The largest contributors to these cities becoming unlivable are the combined effects of climate change (manifested through sea level rise, intensifying storms, and storm surge), land subsidence, and accelerated urbanization. [2]
Natural causes include; earthquakes, erosion, glacial movement, soil compaction and the formation of sinkholes. [18] Groundwater use and pumping in the area was the major water use for farmers and agriculture in the 1920s, and over time, this over-pumping resulted in land subsidence and a decline in groundwater-level resources.
Subsidence is the compaction of soil resulting in a lower elevation. Subsidence can occur when oil, gas, or groundwater are extracted. These substances hold the land up until they are removed. Compaction due to heavy urban infrastructure also occurs. [10] Sea level rise due to climate change is another threat to coastal land. [11]
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In the United States, land subsidence from over pumping has affected 45 states and accounts for changes in over 17,000 square miles of land which is an area almost 10 times the size of Glacier National Park in Montana. [14] The process of compaction is reversible to a point. [15] Water acts as a filler in the space between soil particles.