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Without the presence of dissolved NaOH or KOH, responsible for the high pH (~13.5) of the concrete pore water, the amorphous silica of the reactive aggregates would not be dissolved and the reaction would not evolve. Moreover, the soluble sodium or potassium silicate is very hygroscopic and swells when it absorbs water.
When atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2), or carbonate ions (HCO − 3, CO 2− 3 dissolved in water) diffuse into concrete from its external surface, they react with calcium hydroxide (portlandite, Ca(OH) 2) and the pH of the concrete pore water progressively decreases from 13.5 – 12.5 to 8.5 (pH of water in equilibrium with calcite).
When water is added to cement, each of the compounds undergoes hydration and contributes to the final state of the concrete. [2] Only calcium silicates contribute to the strength. Tricalcium silicate is responsible for most of the early strength (first 7 days). [3] Dicalcium silicate, which reacts more slowly, only contributes to late strength.
Cement hydration and strength development mainly depend on two silicate phases: tricalcium silicate (C 3 S) (), and dicalcium silicate (C 2 S) (). [1] Upon hydration, the main reaction products are calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) and calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2, written as CH in the cement chemist notation.
During the making of concrete, gypsum dissolves at the contact with water, freeing up Ca 2+ and SO 2− 4 ions in solution. These ions react with aluminate Al(OH) − 4 ions present at the surface of the hydrating C 3 A grains forming a thin impervious coating of less soluble ettringite according to the following reaction: [ 19 ]
The enzymatic process facilitates the decomposition of these materials into smaller, water-soluble molecules, [4] which are then more easily flushed without harming the plumbing infrastructure or the environment. While enzyme drain cleaners are effective for regular maintenance and preventing minor clogs, they may not be suitable for severe ...
Rinse each section with clean water as you go to prevent residue from drying. This technique, Palmer notes, is also perfect for shower walls, bathtubs, subway tile, and bathroom sinks.
Their addition allows to decrease the water-to-cement ratio of concrete or mortar without negatively affecting the workability of the mixture. It enables the production of self-consolidating concrete and high-performance concrete. The water–cement ratio is the main factor determining the concrete strength and its durability. Superplasticizers ...
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