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Some contemporary Muslim exegesis [clarification needed] suggests that the Romans referred to in the prophecy variously correspond to the Gulf War coalition, [10] or the Russians, because Russia is the most populous Orthodox Christian country and considers itself the inheritor of the Eastern Roman Empire, or contemporary Europeans. [11]
Historical works of later Muslim writers include the traditional biographies of Muhammad and quotations attributed to him—the sira and hadith literature—which provide further information on Muhammad's life. [4] The earliest surviving written sira (biography of Muhammad) is Sirat Rasul Allah (Life of God's Messenger) by Ibn Ishaq (d. 761 or ...
Many Muslims criticized the Umayyads for having too many non-Muslim, former Roman administrators in their government, e.g., St. John of Damascus. [209] As the Muslims took over cities, they left the people's political representatives, the Roman tax collectors, and the administrators in the office.
According to Islamic prophetic tradition, Muhammad descended from Adnan. [7] Tradition records the genealogy from Adnan to Muhammad comprises 21 generations. The following is the list of chiefs who are said to have ruled the Hejaz and to have been the patrilineal ancestors of Muhammad. [4]
Damascus was the first major city of the Eastern Roman Empire to fall in the Muslim conquest of Syria. The last of the Roman–Persian Wars ended in 628, after Heraclius concluded a successful campaign against the Persians in Mesopotamia. At the same time, Muhammad united the Arabs under the banner of Islam.
The Formation of Islam, Cambridge University Press, 2003 (ISBN 978-0-521-58813-3). Devin De Weese, Devin A, Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde, Penn State University Press, 1994 (ISBN 978-0-271-01073-1). Eaton, Richard M. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1993 1993.
The common opinion among the Sunnis is that the Mahdi is an expected ruler to be sent by God before the end times to re-establish righteousness. [3] He is held to be from among the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali , and his physical characteristics including a broad forehead and curved nose.
[36] [71] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad also sent letters to many rulers of the world, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date are given variously in the sources). [9] [72] [73] Hence he sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to ...