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Disproportionality in special education is the unequal representation of certain demographic groups in restrictive placement and discipline, particularly in the United States' public school system. Disproportionality is often displayed as the under- or over-representation of specific racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, or culturally and ...
The seats-to-votes ratio is used as the basis for the Gallagher index method of analyzing proportionality or disproportionality. Related is the votes-per-seat-won, [3] which is inverse to the seats-to-votes ratio. Also related are the principles of one man one vote and representation by population.
The Gallagher index measures an electoral system's relative disproportionality between votes received and seats in a legislature. [1] [2] As such, it measures the difference between the percentage of votes each party gets and the percentage of seats each party gets in the resulting legislature, and it also measures this disproportionality from all parties collectively in any one given election.
The index is named after John Loosemore and Victor J. Hanby, who first published the formula in 1971 in a paper entitled "The Theoretical Limits of Maximum Distortion: Some Analytic Expressions for Electoral Systems". Along with Douglas W. Rae's, the formula is one of the two most cited disproportionality indices. [3]
The concept of disproportionality involves the observation that, rather than being a reflection of overall levels of economic activity, the majority of environmental destruction is actually due to a relatively small number of economic actors, which enjoy privileged access to natural resources, “diverting” those resources for the private ...
Although all of these methods approximate proportionality, they do so by minimizing different kinds of disproportionality. The D'Hondt method minimizes the largest seats-to-votes ratio. [ 4 ] Empirical studies based on other, more popular concepts of disproportionality show that the D'Hondt method is one of the least proportional among the ...
Disproportionality indexes are sometimes used to evaluate existing and proposed electoral systems. For example, the Canadian Parliament 's 2016 Special Committee on Electoral Reform recommended that if the existing election system was replaced, the new system should be designed to achieve "a Gallagher score of 5 or less".
In chemistry, disproportionation, sometimes called dismutation, is a redox reaction in which one compound of intermediate oxidation state converts to two compounds, one of higher and one of lower oxidation state.