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The hook effect refers to the prozone phenomenon, also known as antibody excess, or the postzone phenomenon, also known as antigen excess. It is an immunologic phenomenon whereby the effectiveness of antibodies to form immune complexes can be impaired when concentrations of an antibody or an antigen are very high.
Antigen tests such as the pregnancy test shows positive line via the formation of a sandwich immune complex that allows the positive line to be visible, in the occurrence of Hook Effect, large amounts of analyte exists in the solution which saturates the antibodies, preventing normal binding and formation of the sandwich immune complex ...
A pregnancy test is used to determine whether a female is pregnant or not. The two primary methods are testing for the female pregnancy hormone ( human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)) in blood or urine using a pregnancy test kit, and scanning with ultrasonography . [ 1 ]
Signs and symptoms of early pregnancy may include missed periods, tender breasts, morning sickness (nausea and vomiting), hunger, implantation bleeding, and frequent urination. [1] Pregnancy may be confirmed with a pregnancy test. [7] Methods of birth control—or, more accurately, contraception—are used to avoid pregnancy.
Signs and symptoms of pregnancy are common, benign conditions that result from the changes to the body that occur during pregnancy. Signs and symptoms of pregnancy typically change as pregnancy progresses, although several symptoms may be present throughout. Depending on severity, common symptoms in pregnancy can develop into complications. [1]
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Progesterone causes many changes to the genitourinary system. A pregnant woman may experience an increase in the size of the kidneys and ureter due to the increase blood volume and vasculature. Later in pregnancy, the woman might develop physiological hydronephrosis and hydroureter, which are normal. [33]
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