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Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves as they travel, or are propagated, from one point to another in vacuum, or into various parts of the atmosphere. [1]: 26‑1 As a form of electromagnetic radiation, like light waves, radio waves are affected by the phenomena of reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization, and scattering. [2]
Propagation delay is equal to d / s where d is the distance and s is the wave propagation speed. In wireless communication, s=c, i.e. the speed of light. In copper wire, the speed s generally ranges from .59c to .77c. [3] [4] This delay is the major obstacle in the development of high-speed computers and is called the interconnect bottleneck in ...
The speed of sound is the distance travelled per unit of time by a sound wave as it propagates through an elastic medium. More simply, the speed of sound is how fast vibrations travel. More simply, the speed of sound is how fast vibrations travel.
The rays or waves may be diffracted, refracted, reflected, or absorbed by the atmosphere and obstructions with material and generally cannot travel over the horizon or behind obstacles. In contrast to line-of-sight propagation, at low frequency (below approximately 3 MHz ) due to diffraction , radio waves can travel as ground waves , which ...
where v is the speed of the wave (c in a vacuum or less in other media), f is the frequency and λ is the wavelength. As waves cross boundaries between different media, their speeds change but their frequencies remain constant. Electromagnetic waves in free space must be solutions of Maxwell's electromagnetic wave equation. Two main classes of ...
The speed of radio signals in vacuum, for example, is the speed of light, and so the velocity factor of a radio wave in vacuum is 1.0 (unity). In air, the velocity factor is ~0.9997. In electrical cables, the velocity factor mainly depends on the insulating material (see table below).
The free-space loss increases with the distance between the antennas and decreases with the wavelength of the radio waves due to these factors: [6] Intensity ( I {\displaystyle I} ) – the power density of the radio waves decreases with the square of distance from the transmitting antenna due to spreading of the electromagnetic energy in space ...
Five factors influence the formation of the flow structures in wind waves: [6] Wind speed or strength relative to wave speed – the wind must be moving faster than the wave crest for energy transfer to the wave. The uninterrupted distance of open water over which the wind blows without significant change in direction (called the fetch)