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In water testing hardness is often measured in parts per million (ppm), where one part per million is defined as one milligram of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) per litre of water. Consequently, 1 dGH corresponds to 10 ppm CaO but 17.848 ppm CaCO 3 which has a molar mass of 100.09 g/mol.
Carbonate hardness, is a measure of the water hardness caused by the presence of carbonate (CO 2− 3) and bicarbonate (HCO − 3) anions. Carbonate hardness is usually expressed either in degrees KH (from the German "Karbonathärte"), or in parts per million calcium carbonate ( ppm CaCO 3 or grams CaCO 3 per litre|mg/L).
The effect of the water-to-cement (w/c) ratio onto the mechanical strength of concrete was first studied by René Féret (1892) in France, and then by Duff A. Abrams (1918) (inventor of the concrete slump test) in the USA, and by Jean Bolomey (1929) in Switzerland.
The ultimate strength of concrete is influenced by the water-cementitious ratio (w/cm), the design constituents, and the mixing, placement and curing methods employed. All things being equal, concrete with a lower water-cement (cementitious) ratio makes a stronger concrete than that with a higher ratio. [2]
Large Xblocs (8.0 m 3 or 280 cu ft) on a trial placement area. An Xbloc is a wave-dissipating concrete block (or "armour unit") designed to protect shores, harbour walls, seawalls, breakwaters and other coastal structures from the direct impact of incoming waves.
When measuring water treated with water softeners, high levels of total dissolved solids do not correlate to hard water, as water softeners do not reduce TDS; rather, they replace magnesium and calcium ions, which cause hard water, with an equal charge of sodium or potassium ions, e.g. Ca 2+ ⇌ 2 Na +, leaving overall TDS unchanged [9] or even ...
A tetrapod is a form of wave-dissipating concrete block used to prevent erosion caused by weather and longshore drift, primarily to enforce coastal structures such as seawalls and breakwaters. Tetrapods are made of concrete , and use a tetrahedral shape to dissipate the force of incoming waves by allowing water to flow around rather than ...
A variety of hardness-testing methods are available, including the Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell, Meyer and Leeb tests. Although it is impossible in many cases to give an exact conversion, it is possible to give an approximate material-specific comparison table for steels .
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