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There is no evidence that vitamin C supplementation decreases the risk cardiovascular disease, [134] although there may be an association between higher circulating vitamin C levels or dietary vitamin C and a lower risk of stroke. [135] There is a positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial dysfunction when taken at doses greater than 500 mg ...
The probable mechanism of vitamin C reduction, intragastric pH elevated into alkalinity, would apply to all other PPI drugs, though not necessarily to doses of PPIs low enough to keep the stomach slightly acidic. [25] In another study, 40 mg/day of omeprazole lowered the fasting gastric vitamin C levels from 3.8 to 0.7 μg/mL. [26]
Pregnant women should take prenatal vitamins containing iodine. [10] Vitamin D levels vary with exposure to sunlight. While it was assumed that supplementation was necessary only in areas of high latitudes, recent studies of Vitamin D levels throughout the United States and many other countries have shown a large number of women with low levels.
Osteoporosis, osteomalacia and rickets are bone disorders linked to calcium metabolism disorders and effects of vitamin D. Renal osteodystrophy is a consequence of chronic kidney failure related to the calcium metabolism. A diet adequately rich in calcium may reduce calcium loss from bone with advancing (post-menopausal) age. [11]
The net effect is an increase of free cortisol. This contributes to insulin resistance of pregnancy and possibly striae. [5] Despite the increase in cortisol, the pregnant mom does not exhibit Cushing syndrome or symptoms of high cortisol. One theory is that high progesterone levels act as an antagonist to the cortisol.
Calcitriol is a hormone and the active form of vitamin D, normally made in the kidney. [8] [9] [10] It is also known as 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol.It binds to and activates the vitamin D receptor in the nucleus of the cell, which then increases the expression of many genes. [11]
The kidneys secrete a variety of hormones, including erythropoietin, calcitriol, and renin. Erythropoietin is released in response to hypoxia (low levels of oxygen at tissue level) in the renal circulation. It stimulates erythropoiesis (production of red blood cells) in the bone marrow.
Levels of hemoglobin are lower in the third trimesters. According to the United Nations (UN) estimates, approximately half of pregnant individuals develop anemia worldwide. Anemia prevalences during pregnancy differed from 18% in developed countries to 75% in South Asia; culminating to a global rate of 38% of pregnancies worldwide. [1] [5] [32]
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