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Temperature measurements are also made by GPS radio occultation. [31] This technique measures the refraction of the radio waves transmitted by GPS satellites as they propagate in the Earth's atmosphere, thus allowing vertical temperature and moisture profiles to be measured.
Cutaway drawing of two radiation belts around Earth: the inner belt (red) dominated by protons and the outer one (blue) by electrons. Image Credit: NASA Image Credit: NASA The inner Van Allen Belt extends typically from an altitude of 0.2 to 2 Earth radii ( L values of 1.2 to 3) or 1,000 km (620 mi) to 12,000 km (7,500 mi) above the Earth.
The gas temperatures in outer space can vary widely. For example, the temperature in the Boomerang Nebula is 1 K (−458 °F), [43] while the solar corona reaches temperatures over 1,200,000–2,600,000 K (2,200,000–4,700,000 °F). [44] Magnetic fields have been detected in the space around just about every class of celestial object.
NASA Earth science satellite fleet as of September 2020, planned through 2023. Earth observation satellite missions developed by the ESA as of 2019. Earth observation satellites are Earth-orbiting spacecraft with sensors used to collect imagery and measurements of the surface of the earth. These satellites are used to monitor short-term weather ...
Space weather effects. Space weather is a branch of space physics and aeronomy, or heliophysics, concerned with the varying conditions within the Solar System and its heliosphere. This includes the effects of the solar wind, especially on the Earth's magnetosphere, ionosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. [1]
This image shows the temperature trend in the lower stratosphere as measured by a series of satellite-based instruments between January 1979 and December 2005. The lower stratosphere is centred around 18 kilometres above Earth's surface. The stratosphere image is dominated by blues and greens, which indicates a cooling over time. [1]
The heliopause is the final known boundary between the heliosphere and the interstellar space that is filled with material, especially plasma, not from the Earth's own star, the Sun, but from other stars. [46] Even so, just outside the heliosphere (i.e. the "solar bubble") there is a transitional region, as detected by Voyager 1. [47]
[13] [14] Similarly, Earth has an effective temperature of 255 K (−18 °C; −1 °F), [14] but a surface temperature of about 288 K (15 °C; 59 °F) [15] due to the greenhouse effect in our lower atmosphere. [5] [4] The surface temperatures of such planets are more accurately estimated by modeling thermal radiation transport through the ...