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In the first line of defense, inhaled bacteria are trapped by mucus and are swept toward the pharynx and are swallowed. [1] Bacteria which penetrate the mucous layer are dealt with a second line of defense which includes antimicrobial peptides that are secreted by the surface epithelium of the respiratory tract which kill many strains of ...
The second and third lines of defense operate by making changes to the buffers, each of which consists of two components: a weak acid and its conjugate base. [ 5 ] [ 13 ] It is the ratio concentration of the weak acid to its conjugate base that determines the pH of the solution. [ 14 ]
An immune response is a physiological reaction which occurs within an organism in the context of inflammation for the purpose of defending against exogenous factors. These include a wide variety of different toxins, viruses, intra- and extracellular bacteria, protozoa, helminths, and fungi which could cause serious problems to the health of the host organism if not cleared from the body.
Each immunoglobulin class differs in its biological properties and has evolved to deal with different antigens. [5] Antibodies are synthesized and secreted by plasma cells that are derived from the B cells of the immune system. An antibody is used by the acquired immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects like bacteria and viruses.
The mononuclear phagocyte system is part of both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. The mononuclear phagocyte system has an important role in defense against microorganisms, including mycobacteria, fungi, bacteria, protozoa, and viruses. Macrophages remove senescent erythrocytes, leukocytes, and megakaryocytes by phagocytosis and digestion.
TLRs are a major class of pattern recognition receptor, that exists in all coelomates (animals with a body-cavity), including humans. [35] The complement system exists in most life forms. Some invertebrates, including various insects, crabs , and worms utilize a modified form of the complement response known as the prophenoloxidase (proPO) system.
This is a list of human anatomy mnemonics, categorized and alphabetized.For mnemonics in other medical specialties, see this list of medical mnemonics.Mnemonics serve as a systematic method for remembrance of functionally or systemically related items within regions of larger fields of study, such as those found in the study of specific areas of human anatomy, such as the bones in the hand ...
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to physiology: . Physiology – scientific study of the normal function in living systems. [1] A branch of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system.