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  2. Principle of sufficient reason - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason

    The modern [1] formulation of the principle is usually ascribed to early Enlightenment philosopher Gottfried Leibniz.Leibniz formulated it, but was not an originator. [2] The idea was conceived of and utilized by various philosophers who preceded him, including Anaximander, [3] Parmenides, Archimedes, [4] Plato and Aristotle, [5] Cicero, [5] Avicenna, [6] Thomas Aquinas, and Spinoza. [7]

  3. Baryon asymmetry - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryon_asymmetry

    Neither the standard model of particle physics nor the theory of general relativity provides a known explanation for why this should be so, and it is a natural assumption that the universe is neutral with all conserved charges. [3] The Big Bang should have produced equal amounts of matter and antimatter. Since this does not seem to have been ...

  4. Occam's razor - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor

    To understand why, consider that for each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there is always an infinite number of possible, more complex, and ultimately incorrect, alternatives. This is so because one can always burden a failing explanation with an ad hoc hypothesis. Ad hoc hypotheses are justifications that prevent theories from being ...

  5. Necessity and sufficiency - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency

    In logic and mathematics, necessity and sufficiency are terms used to describe a conditional or implicational relationship between two statements.For example, in the conditional statement: "If P then Q", Q is necessary for P, because the truth of Q is guaranteed by the truth of P.

  6. False dilemma - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_dilemma

    A false dilemma is an informal fallacy based on a premise that erroneously limits what options are available. [1] [2] [3] In its most simple form, called the fallacy of bifurcation, all but two alternatives are excluded.

  7. Correlation does not imply causation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply...

    The above example commits the correlation-implies-causation fallacy, as it prematurely concludes that sleeping with one's shoes on causes headache. A more plausible explanation is that both are caused by a third factor, in this case going to bed drunk, which thereby gives rise to a correlation. So the conclusion is false. Example 2

  8. Tautology (logic) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautology_(logic)

    A formula that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is said to be logically contingent. Such a formula can be made either true or false based on the values assigned to its propositional variables. The double turnstile notation is used to indicate that S is a tautology.

  9. Catuṣkoṭi - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catuṣkoṭi

    McEvilley (2002: p. 495) makes a case for mutual iteration and pervasion between Pyrrhonism and Madhyamika: . An extraordinary similarity, that has long been noticed, between Pyrrhonism and Mādhyamika is the formula known in connection with Buddhism as the fourfold negation (catuṣkoṭi) and which in Pyrrhonic form might be called the fourfold indeterminacy.