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Schematic representation of transmembrane proteins: 1) a single-pass membrane protein 2) a multipass membrane protein (α-helix) 3) a multipass membrane protein β-sheet. The membrane is represented in light yellow. A transmembrane protein is a type of integral membrane protein that spans the entirety of the cell membrane.
In biology, cell signaling (cell signalling in British English) is the process by which a cell interacts with itself, other cells, and the environment. Cell signaling is a fundamental property of all cellular life in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Typically, the signaling process involves three components: the signal, the receptor, and the effector.
Signal transduction is the process by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell as a series of molecular events.Proteins responsible for detecting stimuli are generally termed receptors, although in some cases the term sensor is used. [1]
The extracellular molecules may be hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines, growth factors, cell adhesion molecules, or nutrients; they react with the receptor to induce changes in the metabolism and activity of a cell. In the process of signal transduction, ligand binding affects a cascading chemical change through the cell membrane.
Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is a superfamily of cytokines that play a significant upstream role in regulating of morphogenesis, homeostasis, cell proliferation, and differentiation. [2] The significance of TGF-β is apparent with the human diseases that occur when TGF-β processes are disrupted, such as cancer, and skeletal ...
Two main signal transduction mechanisms have been identified, via nuclear receptors, or via transmembrane receptors. In the first one, first messenger cross through the cell membrane, binding and activating intracellular receptors localized at nucleus or cytosol, which then act as transcriptional factors regulating directly gene expression ...
A transmembrane domain (TMD, TM domain) is a membrane-spanning protein domain.TMDs may consist of one or several alpha-helices or a transmembrane beta barrel.Because the interior of the lipid bilayer is hydrophobic, the amino acid residues in TMDs are often hydrophobic, although proteins such as membrane pumps and ion channels can contain polar residues.
The movement of phospholipids, even those located in the outer leaflet of the membrane, is regulated by the actin-based membrane skeleton meshwork.Which is surprising, because the membrane skeleton is located on the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane, and cannot directly interact with the phospholipids located in the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane.