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Traditionally, breastfeeding has been defined as the consumption of breastmilk by any means, be it directly at the breast, or feeding expressed breast milk. [3] When direct feeding at the breast is not possible, expressed breast milk retains many unique nutritional and immunological qualities, and as such remains the gold standard for feeding infants. [4]
There is a relationship between prolonged and inappropriate bottle use and increase in dental caries; as such, it is recommended that infants be encouraged to drink from a cup by their first birthday and be weaned from the bottle by 12–14 months of age. Breastfeeding cessation is dependent upon the infant and mother.
This period is followed by the incorporation of nutritionally adequate and safe complementary solid foods at six months, a stage when an infant’s nutrient and energy requirements start to surpass what breast milk alone can provide. Continuation of breastfeeding is recommended up to two years of age.
Some couples may stimulate lactation outside of pregnancy for sexual purposes. Rare accounts of male lactation (as distinct from galactorrhea) exist in historical medical and anthropological literature. [25] Most recently a subject of transgender health care, multiple case reports have described transgender women successfully inducing lactation.
The recommendations for breastfeeding are until at least one year, yet in 2016 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that only 51.8% of infants were breastfed at six months and 30.7% of infants were being breastfed at one year old. [59]
Contraindications to breastfeeding are those conditions that could compromise the health of the infant if breast milk from their mother is consumed. Examples include galactosemia , untreated HIV , untreated active tuberculosis , Human T-lymphotropic virus 1 or II , uses illicit drugs , or mothers undergoing chemotherapy or radiation treatment .
Breastfeeding may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease in later life, as indicated by lower cholesterol and C-reactive protein levels in breastfed adult women. [187] Breastfed infants have somewhat lower blood pressure later in life, but it is unclear how much practical benefit this provides.
The Initiative works with the National Health Service (NHS) to ensure a high standard of care for pregnant women and breastfeeding mothers and babies in hospitals and community health settings. The Baby Friendly Initiative accredits health-care facilities that adopt internationally recognised best practice standards for breastfeeding. [ 28 ]