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For the Bernoulli polynomials, the number of crossings of the x-axis in the unit interval does not go up with the degree. In the limit of large degree, they approach, when appropriately scaled, the sine and cosine functions. A similar set of polynomials, based on a generating function, is the family of Euler polynomials.
The Bernoulli polynomials may be defined recursively by B 0 (x) = 1 and, for k ≥ 1, ′ = (), = The periodized Bernoulli functions are defined as = (⌊ ⌋), where ⌊x⌋ denotes the largest integer less than or equal to x, so that x − ⌊x⌋ always lies in the interval [0,1).
and call them Bernoulli polynomials of the second kind. From the above, it is clear that G n = ψ n (0) . Carlitz [ 16 ] generalized Jordan's polynomials ψ n ( s ) by introducing polynomials β
Under this convention, the polynomials form a Sheffer sequence. The Bernoulli polynomials of the second kind were largely studied by the Hungarian mathematician Charles Jordan, [1] [2] but their history may also be traced back to the much earlier works. [3]
In 1840, Liouville published a proof of the fact that e 2 is irrational [10] followed by a proof that e 2 is not a root of a second-degree polynomial with rational coefficients. [11] This last fact implies that e 4 is irrational. His proofs are similar to Fourier's proof of the irrationality of e.
The generating function of the Bernoulli polynomials is given by: = = ()! These polynomials are given in terms of the Hurwitz zeta function: (,) = = (+)by (,) = for .Using the Ramanujan master theorem and the generating function of Bernoulli polynomials one has the following integral representation: [6]
The transfer operator of the Bernoulli map = ⌊ ⌋ is exactly solvable and is a classic example of deterministic chaos; the discrete eigenvalues correspond to the Bernoulli polynomials. This operator also has a continuous spectrum consisting of the Hurwitz zeta function .
Faulhaber's formula is also called Bernoulli's formula. Faulhaber did not know the properties of the coefficients later discovered by Bernoulli. Rather, he knew at least the first 17 cases, as well as the existence of the Faulhaber polynomials for odd powers described below. [2] Jakob Bernoulli's Summae Potestatum, Ars Conjectandi, 1713
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