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In early hypnotic literature a hypnosis induction was a gradual, drawn-out process. Methods were designed to relax the hypnotic subject into a state of inner focus (during which their imagination would come to the forefront) and the hypnotist would be better able to influence them and help them effect changes at the subconscious level. [10]
Hypnoanalysis is derived from the prefix hypno, which the French Étienne Félix d'Henin de Cuvillers first used to describe the hypnotic state. [3] The term hypnoanalysis was coined by James Arthur Hadfield, who claimed that he invented the term to describe the use of hypnosis to retrieve memories, particularly among patients who have amnesia. [4]
Fantasizers tended to experience hypnosis as being much like other imaginative activities while dissociaters reported it was unlike anything they'd ever experienced. [8] Individuals with dissociative identity disorder have the highest hypnotizability of any clinical group, followed by those with post-traumatic stress disorder .
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The personality psychologist Robert White is often cited as providing one of the first nonstate definitions of hypnosis in a 1941 article: Hypnotic behaviour is meaningful, goal-directed striving, its most general goal being to behave like a hypnotised person as this is continuously defined by the operator and understood by the client.
Breathing and heart rate have been shown to be affected by auditory stimulus, along with brainwave activity. The ability of rhythmic sound to affect human brainwave activity, especially theta brainwaves, is the essence of auditory driving, and is the cause of the altered states of consciousness that it can induce. [11]
Absorption is strongly correlated with openness to experience. [6] Studies using factor analysis have suggested that the fantasy, aesthetics, and feelings facets of the NEO PI-R Openness to Experience scale are closely related to absorption and predict hypnotisability, whereas the remaining three facet scales of ideas, actions, and values are largely unrelated to these constructs. [5]
Spanos argued against Hilgard’s (and others') belief that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness or a "special" or dissociated state of consciousness. Spanos worked for almost thirty years on this theory, first at the Medfield Foundation with Theodore X. Barber, John Chaves and others, and later at Carleton University in Canada. [4]
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