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Early examples in AI and Law include Valente's functional ontology [36] and the frame based ontologies of Visser and van Kralingen. [37] Legal ontologies have since become the subject of regular workshops at AI and Law conferences and there are many examples ranging from generic top-level and core ontologies [ 38 ] to very specific models of ...
In formal extensional ontologies, only the utterances of words and numbers are considered individuals – the numbers and names themselves are classes. In a 4D ontology, an individual is identified by its spatio-temporal extent. Examples of formal extensional ontologies are BORO, ISO 15926 and the model in development by the IDEAS Group.
Fact ontologies present a different approach by focusing on how entities belonging to different categories come together to constitute the world. Facts, also known as states of affairs, are complex entities; for example, the fact that the Earth is a planet consists of the particular object the Earth and the property being a planet. Fact ...
Willard Van Orman Quine provided an early and influential formulation of ontological commitment: [4]. If one affirms a statement using a name or other singular term, or an initial phrase of 'existential quantification', like 'There are some so-and-sos', then one must either (1) admit that one is committed to the existence of things answering to the singular term or satisfying the descriptions ...
Ontologies can be used for structuring data in a machine-readable manner. [14] In this context, an ontology is a controlled vocabulary of classes that can be placed in hierarchical relations with each other. [15] These classes can represent entities in the real world which data is about.
Other examples of ontologies extending BFO are the Ontology for Biomedical Investigations (OBI) and other the ontologies of the Open Biomedical Ontologies Foundry. In addition to these examples, BFO and extensions are increasingly being used in defense and security domains, for example in the Common Core Ontology framework. [10]
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Leibniz's law makes good sense when first considered, however it doesn't take long to see how considerations of time causes problems between most ontologies (especially semantic web ontologies) and Leibniz's law. For example, I might have a beard on one day and shave it off the next, yet I am the same entity at both times.