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The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory describing three of the four known fundamental forces (electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions – excluding gravity) in the universe and classifying all known elementary particles.
This article describes the mathematics of the Standard Model of particle physics, a gauge quantum field theory containing the internal symmetries of the unitary product group SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1). The theory is commonly viewed as describing the fundamental set of particles – the leptons, quarks, gauge bosons and the Higgs boson.
An example of a continuum theory that is widely studied by lattice models is the QCD lattice model, a discretization of quantum chromodynamics. However, digital physics considers nature fundamentally discrete at the Planck scale, which imposes upper limit to the density of information , aka Holographic principle .
The hybrid model is a combination of fluid and kinetic models, treating some components of the system as a fluid, and others kinetically. The hybrid model is sometimes applied in space physics , when the simulation domain exceeds thousands of ion gyroradius scales, making it impractical to solve kinetic equations for electrons.
For example, in order to study the geometry of the Euclidean plane, one defines the coordinates x and y as the distances between any point in the plane and a pair of axes. In ordinary geometry, the coordinates of a point are numbers, so they can be multiplied, and the product of two coordinates does not depend on the order of multiplication.
Examples of toy models in physics include: the Ising model as a toy model for ferromagnetism, or lattice models more generally. It is the simplest model that allows for Euclidean quantum field theory in statistical physics. [2] [3] [4] Newtonian orbital mechanics as described by assuming that Earth is attached to the Sun by an elastic band;
Traditionally, in theoretical physics, the Planck scale is the highest energy scale and all dimensionful parameters are measured in terms of the Planck scale. There is a great hierarchy between the weak scale and the Planck scale, and explaining the ratio of strength of weak force and gravity / = is the focus of much of beyond-Standard-Model physics.
In solid-state physics, the free electron model is a quantum mechanical model for the behaviour of charge carriers in a metallic solid. It was developed in 1927, [1] principally by Arnold Sommerfeld, who combined the classical Drude model with quantum mechanical Fermi–Dirac statistics and hence it is also known as the Drude–Sommerfeld model.