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Caffenol is a photographic alternative process whereby phenols, sodium carbonate and optionally vitamin C are used in aqueous solution as a film and print photographic developer. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Other basic (as opposed to acidic ) chemicals can be used in place of sodium carbonate; however, sodium carbonate is the most common.
Carl Paul Gottfried von Linde (11 June 1842 – 16 November 1934) was a German scientist, engineer, and businessman. He discovered the refrigeration cycle and invented the first industrial-scale air separation and gas liquefaction processes, which led to the first reliable and efficient compressed-ammonia refrigerator in 1876.
The condensed liquids flowed down the sloping pipes in the same direction as the gas. As long as gas flow was slow, this was an effective method for the removal of naphthalene. Vertical air condensers had gas and tar outlets. The annular atmospheric condenser was easier to control with respect to cooling rates.
The average temperature decrease is 3.6 °F (2.0 °C) per 300-meter (1,000 ft) increase in altitude, and at 12,000 meters (40,000 ft), the temperature can approach −57 °C (−70 °F). Additives like benzene, with a freezing point of 6 °C (42 °F), would freeze in the gasoline and plug fuel lines.
The history of thermodynamics is a fundamental strand in the history of physics, the history of chemistry, and the history of science in general. Due to the relevance of thermodynamics in much of science and technology, its history is finely woven with the developments of classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, magnetism, and chemical kinetics, to more distant applied fields such as ...
Instant coffee in a concentrated liquid form, as a beverage, is also manufactured. Advantages of instant coffee include speed of preparation (instant coffee dissolves quickly in hot water), lower shipping weight and volume than beans or ground coffee (to prepare the same amount of beverage), and long shelf life —though instant coffee can ...
[citation needed] During his experiments on fluid mechanics, Biruni invented the conical measure, [6] in order to find the ratio between the weight of a substance in air and the weight of water displaced. [citation needed] Al-Khazini, in The Book of the Balance of Wisdom (1121), invented a hydrostatic balance. [7]
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them. [1]: 3 It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical, aerospace, civil, chemical, and biomedical engineering, as well as geophysics, oceanography, meteorology, astrophysics, and biology.