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Nipple pigmentation or areolar pigmentation is pigmentation (darkening) of the nipple or areola. It is dose-dependently induced as an effect of estrogens and can occur normally during pregnancy and breastfeeding or as a side effect of high-dose estrogen therapy. [1] [2]
Areolar glands, especially during pregnancy and lactation, emit odors that reliably cause newborn babies to face the breast and locate the nipple. Cleaning the breast or otherwise masking these scents makes it harder for newborns to find the nipple, and to get an important first drink of immunoprotective colostrum. [1]
Nipple erection during sexual arousal or breastfeeding are both caused by the release of oxytocin. [11] Nipple erection is due to the contraction of smooth muscle under the control of the autonomic nervous system, [12] and is a product of the pilomotor reflex which causes goose bumps. [13] Few women report experiencing orgasm from nipple ...
Nipple and breast stimulation of women are a near-universal aspect of human sexuality, though men's nipples are not as sexualized. [4] Humans are the only primates whose female members have permanently enlarged breasts after the onset of puberty; the breasts of other primate species are enlarged only during pregnancy and nursing.
During breastfeeding, nipple stimulation by an infant will stimulate the release of oxytocin from the hypothalamus. Oxytocin is a hormone that increases during pregnancy and acts on the breast to help produce the milk-ejection reflex. Oxytocin release from the nipple stimulation of the infant causes the uterus to contract even after childbirth.
Regular heavy nipple play that produces scabbing and bruising can cause internal scar tissue and de-sensitization, resulting in permanent nerve and tissue damage. [30] During pregnancy the nipples may be too sensitive for nipple clamps, and nipple stimulation can cause the release of the contraction-inducing hormone oxytocin. [31]
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It is also a main factor in altering the ability of the infant to latch-on. Engorgement changes the shape and curvature of the nipple region by making the breast inflexible, flat, hard, and swollen. The nipples on an engorged breast are flat or inverted. Sometimes it may lead to striae on nipples, mainly a preceding symptom of septation ...
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