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He related α to the Eddington number, which was his estimate of the number of protons in the universe. [2] This led him in 1929 to conjecture that α was exactly 1/136. [3] He devised a "proof" that N Edd = 136 × 2 256, or about 1.57 × 10 79. Other physicists did not adopt this conjecture and did not accept his argument.
The number of protons in the observable universe is called the Eddington number. In terms of number of particles, some estimates imply that nearly all the matter, excluding dark matter, occurs in neutrinos, which constitute the majority of the roughly 10 86 elementary particles of matter that exist in the visible universe. [12]
According to the theory of cosmic inflation initially introduced by Alan Guth and D. Kazanas, [23] if it is assumed that inflation began about 10 −37 seconds after the Big Bang and that the pre-inflation size of the universe was approximately equal to the speed of light times its age, that would suggest that at present the entire universe's ...
These baryons (protons, neutrons, hyperons, etc.) which comprise the nucleus are called nucleons. Each type of nucleus is called a "nuclide", and each nuclide is defined by the specific number of each type of nucleon. "Isotopes" are nuclides which have the same number of protons but differing numbers of neutrons.
The quark–gluon plasma would be characterized by a great increase in the number of heavier quark pairs in relation to the number of up and down quark pairs. It is believed that in the period prior to 10 −6 seconds after the Big Bang (the quark epoch ), the universe was filled with quark–gluon plasma, as the temperature was too high for ...
As a consequence, we have no reliable theory for the very early universe. Some physicists consider it to be ad hoc and inelegant, requiring 19 numerical constants whose values are unrelated and arbitrary. [65] Although the Standard Model, as it now stands, can explain why neutrinos have masses, the specifics of neutrino mass are still unclear.
The problem was that while the concentration of deuterium in the universe is consistent with the Big Bang model as a whole, it is too high to be consistent with a model that presumes that most of the universe is composed of protons and neutrons. If one assumes that all of the universe consists of protons and neutrons, the density of the ...
String theory provides a cause for multiple generations, but the particular number depends on the details of the compactification of the D-brane intersections. Additionally, E 8 grand unified theories in 10 dimensions compactified on certain orbifolds down to 4 D naturally contain 3 generations of matter. [ 13 ]