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2. Conoscopy - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conoscopy

   A beam of convergent (or divergent) light is known to be a linear superposition of many plane waves over a cone of solid angles. The raytracing of Figure 1 illustrates the basic concept of conoscopy : transformation of a directional distribution of rays of light in the front focal plane into a lateral distribution ( directions image ) appearing ...

3. Optical microscope - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_microscope

   The optical microscope, also referred to as a light microscope, is a type of microscope that commonly uses visible light and a system of lenses to generate magnified images of small objects. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were possibly invented in their present compound form in the 17th century.

4. Bright-field microscopy - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bright-field_microscopy

   The light path of a bright-field microscope is extremely simple; no additional components are required beyond the normal light-microscope setup. The light path begins at the illuminator or the light source on the base of the microscope. Often a halogen lamp is used. The light travels through the objective lens into the ocular lens, through ...

5. Microscopy - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopy

   A two-photon microscope is also a laser-scanning microscope, but instead of UV, blue or green laser light, a pulsed infrared laser is used for excitation. Only in the tiny focus of the laser is the intensity high enough to generate fluorescence by two-photon excitation , which means that no out-of-focus fluorescence is generated, and no pinhole ...

6. Phase-contrast microscopy - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-contrast_microscopy

   When light waves travel through a medium other than a vacuum, interaction with the medium causes the wave amplitude and phase to change in a manner dependent on properties of the medium. Changes in amplitude (brightness) arise from the scattering and absorption of light, which is often wavelength-dependent and may give rise to colors.

7. Scanning transmission electron microscopy - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_transmission...

   A scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) is a type of transmission electron microscope (TEM). Pronunciation is [stɛm] or [ɛsti:i:ɛm]. As with a conventional transmission electron microscope (CTEM), images are formed by electrons passing through a sufficiently thin specimen. However, unlike CTEM, in STEM the electron beam is focused ...