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They discovered that evaluators viewed highly successful mothers as less warm and more interpersonally hostile than comparable workers who are not mothers. [3] Stereotypical gender role expectations cause many challenges for mothers who are reentering the workplace. [12]
Parents had a responsibility to uphold traditional gender roles in society. [3] Gender roles in society were as follows: fathers work outside of the home and bring in the bread (take on the role of providers), while mothers tend to housework, make sure they are emotionally available, and look after the children (take on the role of caretakers). [3]
Some mothers, especially in relatively wealthy countries, overeat and spend too much time resting. Other mothers, especially if they are poor or abused, may be overworked and may not be able to eat enough, or may not be able to afford healthful foods with sufficient iron, vitamins, and protein, for the unborn child to develop properly.
Maternal sensitivity is most commonly assessed during naturalistic observation of free play interactions between mother and child. [4] There are several factors surrounding assessment during observation that may cause differences in results, including the setting (home vs laboratory), the context (free play vs structured task), the length of observation and the frequency of observation.
Role theory is a concept in sociology and in social psychology that considers most of everyday activity to be the acting-out of socially defined categories (e.g., mother, manager, teacher). Each role is a set of rights, duties, expectations, norms, and behaviors that a person has to face and fulfill. [1]
The third gender role of nádleehi (meaning "one who is transformed" or "one who changes"), beyond contemporary Anglo-American definition limits of gender, is part of the Navajo Nation society, a "two-spirit" cultural role. The renowned 19th-century Navajo artist Hosteen Klah (1849–1896) is an example. [32] [33] [34]
[11] [12] While both fathers and mothers encourage traditional gender roles in their children, fathers tend to encourage these roles more frequently than mothers. [11] By choosing their children's activities, parents are directly influencing their gender role views and preferences onto their children and shaping expectations. [13]
Under maternalism, the mother-child relationship is essential for maintaining a healthy society. [4] All women are seen united and defined by their ability and shared responsibility to mother all children. Using the foundations of motherhood, mothers within maternalism provide a service to the state or nation by raising "citizen-workers."