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When was the earliest known use of the testudo formation by the Romans? Wikipedia's article on the testudo formation includes a quote from Cassius Dio which mentions the use of a testudo formation at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 B.C.
1 Answer. Both variants are possible. In the variant with side protections, the soldiers at the flanks would hold their shields to their sides. This made the top protection a bit worse and reduced mobility, but provided better protection. Sometimes soldieirs at the rear of the formation would also walk sideways to keep the back protected as well.
It is hard to rationalize that the much larger Ballista would have a harder time of piercing a Testudo formation than that of the much smaller Parthian bows. As there were no sources I could find of Ballistas being used against the Roman Scutum. Update. Here are the facts on ballista's strength and weights data available from Wikipedia:
The Roman "testudo" was a formation specifically for siege warfare, and it was mobile because the first row of shields was NOT on the ground. Remember that neither the Danes, nor the Saxons, nor any Germanic force (aside from the Frankish army) were full-time professional soldiers.
I don't believe the Testudo formation dictated what shields were used by Roman infantry. It was a very specialised formation with many weaknesses. Given the Roman track record of innovation and their doctrine of tactical flexibility it seems unlikely that their shield choice would be beholden to one of the many tricks in their vast playbook.
The basic phalanx, soldiers in a tight, rectangular formation moving forward as a unit, usually with polearm and shield, was around for millennia by the late Egyptian period. The earliest depiction is in the Stele of the Vultures celebrating a victory of Lagash over its neighbor Umma around 2500 BC.
To keep mounted units far enough away, very long spears, aka pikes, are required, as the Hellenes and later the Swiss did. However, such units have difficulties to retain proper formation, and thus cannot move quickly. Also, they are still vulnerable to archer fire. It might be difficult to maintain a testudo formation together with pikes. –
3. "Defense in depth" was the key to winning, after the earliest battles. With a "long thin line," you will either "kill or be killed" at the first shock of battle. That's how wargames play, but not how warfare was conducted by the time of the Greeks and Romans. The Romans won mainly because they "outlasted" almost everyone else.
On the other hand, Alexander used the phalanx to hold the opponent while his cavalry (led by him in person, usually) drove through the enemy's flank and broke his formation. In both cases, the phalanx was used a special-purpose tool, not a general-purpose one. When it faced a more flexible general-purpose formation as the mature legion, it lost.
This formation was designed to safeguard his army from being outmaneuvered by the Parthians, but it came at the cost of reduced maneuverability. As the Roman forces advanced, they reached a stream. Crassus's other generals advised him to establish a camp and postpone an attack until the following day, allowing his troops to rest.