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Similarly, only 1% of the world's helium demands could be satisfied by re-tooling all air distillation plants. [159] Helium can be synthesized by bombardment of lithium or boron with high-velocity protons, or by bombardment of lithium with deuterons, but these processes are a completely uneconomical method of production. [160]
Helium is composed of two electrons bound by the electromagnetic force to a nucleus containing two protons along with two neutrons, depending on the isotope, held together by the strong force. Unlike for hydrogen , a closed-form solution to the Schrödinger equation for the helium atom has not been found.
Each atom of helium-4 is a boson particle, by virtue of its integer spin. A helium-3 atom is a fermion particle; it can form bosons only by pairing with another particle like itself, which occurs at much lower temperatures. The discovery of superfluidity in helium-3 was the basis for the award of the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics. [1]
Liquid helium is a physical state of helium at very low temperatures at standard atmospheric pressures.Liquid helium may show superfluidity.. At standard pressure, the chemical element helium exists in a liquid form only at the extremely low temperature of −269 °C (−452.20 °F; 4.15 K).
Helium is the smallest and the lightest noble gas and one of the most unreactive elements, so it was commonly considered that helium compounds cannot exist at all, or at least under normal conditions. [1] Helium's first ionization energy of 24.57 eV is the highest of any element. [2]
According to QFT the universe is made up of matter fields whose quanta are fermions (e.g. electrons and quarks), force fields whose quanta are bosons (i.e. photons and gluons) and a Higgs field whose quantum is the Higgs boson. The matter and force fields have zero-point energy. [2]
A definition of "matter" based on its physical and chemical structure is: matter is made up of atoms. [17] Such atomic matter is also sometimes termed ordinary matter. As an example, deoxyribonucleic acid molecules (DNA) are matter under this definition because they are made of atoms.
The femtometre (American spelling femtometer), symbol fm, [1] [2] (derived from the Danish and Norwegian word femten 'fifteen', Ancient Greek: μέτρον, romanized: metron, lit. 'unit of measurement') is a unit of length in the International System of Units (SI) equal to 10 −15 metres , which means a quadrillionth of one metre.
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