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The Standard Model of particle physics contains 12 flavors of elementary fermions, plus their corresponding antiparticles, as well as elementary bosons that mediate the forces and the Higgs boson, which was reported on July 4, 2012, as having been likely detected by the two main experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (ATLAS and CMS). [1]
This also means it is the first elementary scalar particle discovered in nature. Elementary bosons responsible for the four fundamental forces of nature are called force particles ( gauge bosons ). The strong interaction is mediated by the gluon , the weak interaction is mediated by the W and Z bosons, electromagnetism by the photon, and ...
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A quark (/ k w ɔːr k, k w ɑːr k /) is a type of elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter.Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. [1]
This second-generation particle is the third-most-massive quark, with a mass of 1.27 ± 0.02 GeV/c 2 as measured in 2022, and a charge of + 2 / 3 e. The existence of the charm quark was first predicted by James Bjorken and Sheldon Glashow in 1964, [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] and in 1970, Glashow, John Iliopoulos , and Luciano Maiani showed how ...
The Higgs particle is a massive scalar elementary particle theorized by Peter Higgs in 1964, when he showed that Goldstone's 1962 theorem (generic continuous symmetry, which is spontaneously broken) provides a third polarisation of a massive vector field.
[34]: 364 [5] In the same year Emil Wiechert and Walter Kaufmann also calculated the e/m ratio but did not take the step of interpreting their results as showing a new particle, while J. J. Thomson would subsequently in 1899 give estimates for the electron charge and mass as well: e ~ 6.8 × 10 −10 esu and m ~ 3 × 10 −26 g [44] [45]
As with other elementary particles, photons are best explained by quantum mechanics and exhibit wave–particle duality, their behavior featuring properties of both waves and particles. [2] The modern photon concept originated during the first two decades of the 20th century with the work of Albert Einstein , who built upon the research of Max ...