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Chalcolithic Age (copper age) beginning about 7,000 years ago: copper, gold, silver, mercury. In the early Bronze Age, lead was used with antimony and arsenic. [2] The use of meteoric iron–nickel alloy has been traced as far back as 3500 BC. Iron Age, Ancient Near East (1300–600 BC), India (1200–200 BC), Europe (1200 BC – 400 AD).
The earliest gold artifacts were discovered at the site of Wadi Qana in the Levant. [13] Silver is estimated to have been discovered in Asia Minor shortly after copper and gold. [14] There is evidence that iron was known from before 5000 BC. [15] The oldest known iron objects used by humans are some beads of meteoric iron, made in Egypt in ...
The German Renaissance specialist Georgius Agricola wrote works such as De re metallica (On Metals, 1556) and De Natura Fossilium (On the Nature of Rocks, 1546) which began the scientific approach to the subject. Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-Renaissance Europe. [2]
Candle moulding machine in Indonesia circa 1920. Candle making was developed independently in a number of countries around the world. [1]Candles were primarily made from tallow and beeswax in Europe from the Roman period until the modern era, when spermaceti (from sperm whales) was used in the 18th and 19th centuries, [2] and purified animal fats and paraffin wax since the 19th century. [1]
Prior to this invention, mirror plates, made from blown "sheet" glass, had been limited in size. De Nehou's process of rolling molten glass poured on an iron table rendered the manufacture of very large plates possible. [53] This method of production was adopted by the English in 1773 at Ravenhead. The polishing process was industrialized ...
Varna necropolis, grave offerings on exhibit at the Varna Museum. The site was accidentally discovered in October 1972 by excavator operator Raycho Marinov. The first person to value the significant historical meaning was Dimitar Zlatarski, the creator of the Dalgopol Historical Museum, when he was called by the locals to examine what they had found earlier that day.
Window glass was formed by casting into flat clay molds then removed and cleaned. [12] The texture in stained glass comes from the texture the sand mold left on the side in contact with the mold. [12] Polymeric composites also made an appearance during this time frame in the form of wood.
The earliest gold metallurgy is known from the Varna culture in Bulgaria, dating from c. 4600 BC. [6] Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found native, allowing a limited amount of metalworking in ancient cultures. [7] Egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 BC were highly prized as "daggers from Heaven". [8]