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  2. Exponentiation by squaring - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation_by_squaring

    In mathematics and computer programming, exponentiating by squaring is a general method for fast computation of large positive integer powers of a number, or more generally of an element of a semigroup, like a polynomial or a square matrix. Some variants are commonly referred to as square-and-multiply algorithms or binary exponentiation.

  3. Modular exponentiation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_exponentiation

    Modular exponentiation is the remainder when an integer b (the base) is raised to the power e (the exponent), and divided by a positive integer m (the modulus); that is, c = b e mod m. From the definition of division, it follows that 0 ≤ c < m .

  4. Montgomery modular multiplication - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgomery_modular...

    Modular exponentiation can be done using exponentiation by squaring by initializing the initial product to the Montgomery representation of 1, that is, to R mod N, and by replacing the multiply and square steps by Montgomery multiplies. Performing these operations requires knowing at least N′ and R 2 mod N.

  5. Karatsuba algorithm - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm

    The Karatsuba algorithm is a fast multiplication algorithm. It was discovered by Anatoly Karatsuba in 1960 and published in 1962. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] It is a divide-and-conquer algorithm that reduces the multiplication of two n -digit numbers to three multiplications of n /2-digit numbers and, by repeating this reduction, to at most n log 2 ⁡ 3 ...

  6. Computational complexity of mathematical operations - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity...

    Exponentiation with Montgomery reduction O ( M ( n ) k ) {\displaystyle O(M(n)\,k)} On stronger computational models, specifically a pointer machine and consequently also a unit-cost random-access machine it is possible to multiply two n -bit numbers in time O ( n ).

  7. Modular multiplicative inverse - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_multiplicative_inverse

    This method is generally slower than the extended Euclidean algorithm, but is sometimes used when an implementation for modular exponentiation is already available. Some disadvantages of this method include: The value () must be known and the most efficient known computation requires m 's factorization. Factorization is widely believed to be a ...

  8. NYC congestion pricing axed as Trump’s DOT pulls approval of ...

    www.aol.com/nyc-congestion-pricing-axed-trump...

    New York City's spectacularly unpopular congestion pricing scheme is on death row as the Trump administration announced Wednesday it is pulling its approval of the toll in a major blow to Gov ...

  9. Knuth's up-arrow notation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knuth's_up-arrow_notation

    In mathematics, Knuth's up-arrow notation is a method of notation for very large integers, introduced by Donald Knuth in 1976. [1]In his 1947 paper, [2] R. L. Goodstein introduced the specific sequence of operations that are now called hyperoperations.