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An erosion gully in Australia caused by rabbits, an unintended consequence of their introduction as game animals. In the social sciences, unintended consequences (sometimes unanticipated consequences or unforeseen consequences, more colloquially called knock-on effects) are outcomes of a purposeful action that are not intended or foreseen.
The consequences of scientific misconduct can be damaging for perpetrators and journal audience [3] [4] and for any individual who exposes it. [5] In addition there are public health implications attached to the promotion of medical or other interventions based on false or fabricated research findings.
Appeal to consequences, also known as argumentum ad consequentiam (Latin for "argument to the consequence"), is an argument that concludes a hypothesis (typically a belief) to be either true or false based on whether the premise leads to desirable or undesirable consequences. [1] This is based on an appeal to emotion and is a type of informal ...
An example of this is the slippery-slope argument, which encourages others to avoid a specified act on the grounds that it may ultimately lead to undesirable consequences. [ 32 ] Often "negative" consequentialist theories assert that reducing suffering is more important than increasing pleasure.
Ioannidis describes what he views as some of the problems and calls for reform, characterizing certain points for medical research to be useful again; one example he makes is the need for medicine to be patient-centered (e.g. in the form of the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute) instead of the current practice to mainly take care of ...
Taleb's "black swan theory" (which differs from the earlier philosophical versions of the problem) refers only to statistically unexpected events of large magnitude and consequence and their dominant role in history. Such events, considered extreme outliers, collectively play vastly larger roles than regular occurrences.
Example 3. In other cases it may simply be unclear which is the cause and which is the effect. For example: Children that watch a lot of TV are the most violent. Clearly, TV makes children more violent. This could easily be the other way round; that is, violent children like watching more TV than less violent ones. Example 4
One way to model spillover effects is a binary indicator for whether an immediate neighbor was also treated, as in the example above. One can also posit spillover effects that depend on the number of immediate neighbors that were also treated, also known as k-level effects.