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Smoking most commonly leads to diseases affecting the heart and lungs and will commonly affect areas such as hands or feet. First signs of smoking-related health issues often show up as numbness in the extremities, with smoking being a major risk factor for heart attacks, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, and cancer, particularly lung cancer, cancers of the larynx and ...
Neuroplasticity is the process by which neurons adapt to a disturbance over time, and most often occurs in response to repeated exposure to stimuli. [27] Aerobic exercise increases the production of neurotrophic factors [note 1] (e.g., BDNF, IGF-1, VEGF) which mediate improvements in cognitive functions and various forms of memory by promoting blood vessel formation in the brain, adult ...
BDNF is critical to long term memory formation and the upkeep of neurons. Downregulation of BDNF has also been linked to clinical depression. [ 4 ] Taken as a whole, the epigentic consequences of prenatal exposure to cigarette smoke result in increased metabolic stress, decreased genomic stability, heightened risk of mutation and altered brain ...
Environmental factors, including physical exercise, have been shown to have a beneficial influence on epigenetic modifications. Generally, it has been shown that acute and long-term exercise has a significant effect on DNA methylation, an important aspect of epigenetic modifications.
The effects of physical activity can be distributed throughout the whole brain, such as higher gray matter density and white matter integrity after exercise training, [44] [45] and/or on specific brain areas, such as greater activation in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. [46] Neuroplasticity is also the underlying mechanism of skill acquisition.
The effect of training on the body has been defined as the reaction to the adaptive responses of the body arising from exercise [3] or as "an elevation of metabolism produced by exercise". [4] Exercise physiologists study the effect of exercise on pathology, and the mechanisms by which exercise can reduce or reverse disease progression.
Supercompensation describes the adaptation of muscles on a previous stimulus over time. [3] Long-term endurance training induces many physiological adaptations both centrally and peripherally mediated. [4] Central cardiovascular adaptations include decreased heart rate, increased stroke volume of the heart, increased cardiac output. [4]
Obesity is a complex disease that affects whole-body metabolism and is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and Type 2 diabetes (T2D). Physical exercise results in numerous health benefits and is an important tool to combat obesity and its co-morbidities, including cardiovascular diseases. Exercise prevents both the ...