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A Companion to the Medieval Papacy: Growth of an Ideology and Institution (Brill, 2016) online; Moorhead, John. The Popes and the Church of Rome in Late Antiquity (Routledge, 2015) Noble, Thomas F.X. "The Papacy in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries". New Cambridge Medieval History, v. 2: c. 700–c.900, ed. Rosamund McKiterrick (Cambridge UP, 1995).
The traditional social stratification of the Occident in the 15th century. Church and state in medieval Europe was the relationship between the Catholic Church and the various monarchies and other states in Europe during the Middle Ages (between the end of Roman authority in the West in the fifth century to their end in the East in the fifteenth century and the beginning of the Modern era).
Christian influences in Islam can be traced back to Eastern Christianity, which surrounded the origins of Islam. [1] Islam, emerging in the context of the Middle East that was largely Christian, was first seen as a Christological heresy known as the "heresy of the Ishmaelites", described as such in Concerning Heresy by Saint John of Damascus, a Syriac scholar.
A Christian and a Muslim playing chess, illustration from the Book of Games of Alfonso X (c. 1285). [1]During the High Middle Ages, the Islamic world was an important contributor to the global cultural scene, innovating and supplying information and ideas to Europe, via Al-Andalus, Sicily and the Crusader kingdoms in the Levant.
Inspired by the First Crusade, the crusading movement went on to define late medieval western culture and impacted the history of the western Islamic world. [218] Christendom was geopolitical, and this underpinned the practice of the medieval Church. Reformists of the 11th century urged these ideas which declined following the Reformation.
The history of Islam is believed by most historians [1] to have originated with Muhammad's mission in Mecca and Medina at the start of the 7th century CE, [2] [3] although Muslims regard this time as a return to the original faith passed down by the Abrahamic prophets, such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, and Jesus, with the submission (Islām) to the will of God.
By the Late Middle Ages, Islam was more typically grouped with Paganism, and Muhammad was viewed as an idolater inspired by the Devil. [8] A more relaxed or benign view of Islam only developed in the modern period, after the Islamic empires ceased to be an acute military threat to Europe (see Orientalism).
[35] Thomas Shahan says that, according to Photius, Pope Damasus approved the council of Constantinople, but he adds that, if any part of the council were approved by this pope, it could have been only its revision of the Nicene Creed, as was the case also when Gregory the Great recognized it as one of the four general councils, but only in its ...