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The main dopaminergic pathways of the human brain. Dopaminergic pathways (dopamine pathways, dopaminergic projections) in the human brain are involved in both physiological and behavioral processes including movement, cognition, executive functions, reward, motivation, and neuroendocrine control. [1]
Dopamine receptors are implicated in many neurological processes, including motivational and incentive salience, cognition, memory, learning, and fine motor control, as well as modulation of neuroendocrine signaling. Abnormal dopamine receptor signaling and dopaminergic nerve function is implicated in several neuropsychiatric disorders. [2]
In humans, dopamine has a high binding affinity at dopamine receptors and human trace amine-associated receptor 1 (hTAAR1). [ 3 ] [ 33 ] In mammals, five subtypes of dopamine receptors have been identified, labeled from D 1 to D 5 . [ 22 ]
The SNc is easily visualized in human brain sections because the dopamine neurons contain a black pigment called neuromelanin which is known to accumulate with age. [4] The dopaminergic cell bodies in the SNc are densely packed with approximately 200,000 to 420,000 dopamine cells in human SNc and 8,000 to 12,000 dopamine cells in mouse SNc. [5]
The mesolimbic pathway and its positioning in relation to the other dopaminergic pathways. The mesolimbic pathway is a collection of dopaminergic (i.e., dopamine-releasing) neurons that project from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the ventral striatum, which includes the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) and olfactory tubercle. [9]
The striatum (pl.: striata) or corpus striatum [5] is a cluster of interconnected nuclei that make up the largest structure of the subcortical basal ganglia. [6] The striatum is a critical component of the motor and reward systems; receives glutamatergic and dopaminergic inputs from different sources; and serves as the primary input to the rest of the basal ganglia.
The dopamine reward circuitry in the human brain involves two projection systems from the ventral midbrain to the nucleus accumbens-olfactory tubercle complex. First, the posteromedial VTA and central linear raphe cells selectively project to the ventromedial striatum, which includes the medial olfactory tubercle and the medial NAC shell.
The high density of dopamine receptors in the area postrema makes it very sensitive to the dopamine-enhancing drugs. Stimulation of the dopamine receptors in the area postrema activates these vomiting centers of the brain; this is why nausea is one of the most common side-effects of antiparkinsonian drugs. [14]