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Airborne particulate matter is a Group 1 carcinogen. [ 5 ] Particulates are the most harmful form (other than ultra-fines) of air pollution [ 6 ] as they can penetrate deep into the lungs and brain from blood streams, causing health problems such as heart disease, lung disease, cancer and preterm birth. [ 7 ]
The field equations of condensed matter physics are remarkably similar to those of high energy particle physics. As a result, much of the theory of particle physics applies to condensed matter physics as well; in particular, there are a selection of field excitations, called quasi-particles, that can be created and explored. These include:
Rayleigh scattering causes the blue color of the daytime sky and the reddening of the Sun at sunset. Rayleigh scattering (/ ˈreɪli / RAY-lee) is the almost elastic scattering of light, or other electromagnetic radiation, by particles with a size much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation. For light frequencies well below the resonance ...
Mixture of polymers and solvent on a lattice. Flory–Huggins solution theory is a lattice model of the thermodynamics of polymer solutions which takes account of the great dissimilarity in molecular sizes in adapting the usual expression for the entropy of mixing. The result is an equation for the Gibbs free energy change for mixing a polymer ...
Ernest Marsden was a physics undergraduate student studying under Geiger. [12] In 1908, Rutherford sought to independently determine the charge and mass of alpha particles. To do this, he wanted to count the number of alpha particles and measure their total charge; the ratio would give the charge of a single alpha particle.
Permittivity is a material's property that affects the Coulomb force between two point charges in the material. Relative permittivity is the factor by which the electric field between the charges is decreased relative to vacuum. Likewise, relative permittivity is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor using that material as a dielectric ...
For calcium (Z = 20), Compton scattering starts to dominate at hυ = 0.08 MeV and ceases at 12 MeV. [2] In Compton's original experiment (see Fig. 1), the energy of the X ray photon (≈ 17 keV) was significantly larger than the binding energy of the atomic electron, so the electrons could be treated as being free after scattering.
1.7×10 −21 J. 1 kJ/mol, converted to energy per molecule [9] 2.1×10 −21 J. Thermal energy in each degree of freedom of a molecule at 25 °C (kT /2) (0.01 eV) [10] 2.856×10 −21 J. By Landauer's principle, the minimum amount of energy required at 25 °C to change one bit of information. 3–7×10 −21 J.