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Low-dose naltrexone has been studied for the treatment of multiple chronic pain disorders including fibromyalgia, multiple sclerosis, Crohn’s disease, and complex regional pain syndrome. [ 2 ] Naltrexone is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for medication-assisted treatment of alcoholism and opioid use disorders . [ 3 ]
Naltrexone/bupropion, sold under the brand name Contrave among others, is a fixed-dose combination medication for the management of chronic obesity in adults in combination with a reduced-calorie diet and increased physical activity. [4] [6] It contains naltrexone, an opioid antagonist, and bupropion, an aminoketone atypical antidepressant. [4]
Naltrexone, sold under the brand name Revia among others, is a medication primarily used to manage alcohol use or opioid use disorder by reducing cravings and feelings of euphoria associated with substance use disorder. [8] It has also been found effective in the treatment of other addictions and may be used for them off-label. [12]
[2] [3] It is a major active metabolite of naltrexone formed by hepatic dihydrodiol dehydrogenase enzymes. [2] [3] With naltrexone therapy, 6β-naltrexol is present at approximately 10- to 30-fold higher concentrations than naltrexone at steady state due to extensive first-pass metabolism of naltrexone into 6β-naltrexol. [4]
A course of low-dose naltrexone is thus often used as the final step in the treatment of opioid addiction after the patient has been weaned off the substitute agonist such as methadone or buprenorphine, in order to restore homeostasis and minimize the risk of post acute withdrawal syndrome once the maintenance agonist has been withdrawn.
Methylnaltrexone (MNTX, brand name Relistor), used in form of methylnaltrexone bromide (INN, USAN, BAN), is a medication that acts as a peripherally acting μ-opioid receptor antagonist that acts to reverse some of the side effects of opioid drugs such as constipation without significantly affecting pain relief or precipitating withdrawals.
For example, CAT exams must usually meet content specifications; [3] a verbal exam may need to be composed of equal numbers of analogies, fill-in-the-blank and synonym item types. CATs typically have some form of item exposure constraints, [ 3 ] to prevent the most informative items from being over-exposed.
Nalorphine was the second opioid antagonist to be introduced, preceded by nalodeine (N-allylnorcodeine) in 1915 and followed by naloxone in 1960 and naltrexone in 1963. [3] Due to potent activation of the κ-opioid receptor , nalorphine produces side effects such as dysphoria , anxiety , confusion , and hallucinations , and for this reason, is ...