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This core convection occurs in stars where the CNO cycle contributes more than 20% of the total energy. As the star ages and the core temperature increases, the region occupied by the convection zone slowly shrinks from 20% of the mass down to the inner 8% of the mass. [25] The Sun produces on the order of 1% of its energy from the CNO cycle.
The total energy yield of one whole chain is 26.73 MeV. Energy released as gamma rays will interact with electrons and protons and heat the interior of the Sun. Also kinetic energy of fusion products (e.g. of the two protons and the 4 2 He from the p–p I reaction) adds energy to the plasma in the Sun.
Firing the Z-machine became a way to test high energy, high temperature (2 billion degrees) conditions. [86] In 1996. In 1997, JET reached 16.1 MW (65% of heat to plasma [87]), sustaining over 10 MW for over 0.5 sec. As of 2020 this remained the record output level. Four megawatts of alpha particle self-heating was achieved.
The Meissner effect was given a phenomenological explanation by the brothers Fritz and Heinz London, who showed that the electromagnetic free energy in a superconductor is minimized provided ∇ 2 H = λ − 2 H {\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {H} =\lambda ^{-2}\mathbf {H} \,}
Characteristic velocity or , or C-star is a measure of the combustion performance of a rocket engine independent of nozzle performance, and is used to compare different propellants and propulsion systems. c* should not be confused with c, which is the effective exhaust velocity related to the specific impulse by: =. Specific impulse and ...
Comparison of the energy output (ε) of proton–proton (PP), CNO and Triple-α fusion processes at different temperatures (T). The dashed line shows the combined energy generation of the PP and CNO processes within a star. Helium accumulates in the cores of stars as a result of the proton–proton chain reaction and the carbon–nitrogen ...
The lines are produced by transitions from a higher energy level of an electron to a level with principal quantum number n = 4. The lines have wavelengths: 10124 Å (n = 5 to n = 4) (infrared) 6560 Å (n = 6 to n = 4) 5412 Å (n = 7 to n = 4) 4859 Å (n = 8 to n = 4) 4541 Å (n = 9 to n = 4) 4339 Å (n = 10 to n = 4)
Logarithm of the relative energy output (ε) of proton–proton (p-p), CNO, and triple-α fusion processes at different temperatures (T). The dashed line shows the combined energy generation of the p-p and CNO processes within a star. The stable alpha elements are: C, O, Ne, Mg, Si, and S. The elements Ar and Ca are "observationally stable".