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This yields a polytrope of index 3, which has a total mass, M limit, depending only on K 2. [9] For a fully relativistic treatment, the equation of state used interpolates between the equations P = K 1 ρ 5/3 for small ρ and P = K 2 ρ 4/3 for large ρ. When this is done, the model radius still decreases with mass, but becomes zero at M limit.
The original "body-wave magnitude" – mB or m B (uppercase "B") – was developed by Gutenberg 1945c and Gutenberg & Richter 1956 [25] to overcome the distance and magnitude limitations of the M L scale inherent in the use of surface waves. mB is based on the P and S waves, measured over a longer period, and does not saturate until around M 8.
The moment magnitude scale (MMS; denoted explicitly with M or M w or Mwg, and generally implied with use of a single M for magnitude [1]) is a measure of an earthquake's magnitude ("size" or strength) based on its seismic moment. M w was defined in a 1979 paper by Thomas C. Hanks and Hiroo Kanamori.
Permian–Triassic boundary at Frazer Beach in New South Wales, with the End Permian extinction event located just above the coal layer [2]. Approximately 251.9 million years ago, the Permian–Triassic (P–T, P–Tr) extinction event (PTME; also known as the Late Permian extinction event, [3] the Latest Permian extinction event, [4] the End-Permian extinction event, [5] [6] and colloquially ...
The homogeneous spherical model slightly underestimates the rate of increase in air mass near the horizon; a reasonable overall fit to values determined from more rigorous models can be had by setting the air mass to match a value at a zenith angle less than 90°.
Although more than one wave was probably involved, this remains the most likely sinking due to a freak wave. [15] Esso Languedoc (1980) – A 25-to-30 m (80-to-100 ft) wave washed across the deck from the stern of the French supertanker near Durban, South Africa. [113] [114] Fastnet Lighthouse – Struck by a 48-metre (157 ft) wave in 1985 [115]
Magnetic induction B (also known as magnetic flux density) has the SI unit tesla [T or Wb/m 2]. [1] One tesla is equal to 10 4 gauss. Magnetic field drops off as the inverse cube of the distance ( 1 / distance 3 ) from a dipole source. Energy required to produce laboratory magnetic fields increases with the square of magnetic field. [2]
A seismogram recorded in Massachusetts, United States. The magnitude 9.1 (M w) undersea megathrust earthquake occurred on 11 March 2011 at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) in the north-western Pacific Ocean at a relatively shallow depth of 32 km (20 mi), [9] [56] with its epicenter approximately 72 km (45 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of Tōhoku, Japan, lasting approximately six minutes.