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Rod bipolar cells do not synapse directly on to ganglion cells. Instead, rod bipolar cells synapse on to a Retina amacrine cell, which in turn excite cone ON bipolar cells (via gap junctions) and inhibit cone OFF bipolar cells (via glycine-mediated inhibitory synapses) thereby overtaking the cone pathway in order to send signals to ganglion ...
Glycogen synthase kinase 3 has been implicated in bipolar disorder, as bipolar medications lithium and valproate have been shown to increase its phosphorylation, thereby inhibiting it. However, some postmortem studies have not shown any differences in GSK-3 levels or the levels of a downstream target β-catenin . [ 100 ]
Bipolar cells come in two varieties, having either an on-center or an off-center receptive field, each with a surround of the opposite sign. The off-center bipolar cells have excitatory synaptic connections with the photoreceptors, which fire continuously in the dark and are hyperpolarized (suppressed) by light. The excitatory synapses thus ...
The blood–ocular barrier is a barrier created by endothelium of capillaries of the retina and iris, ciliary epithelium and retinal pigment epithelium. [1] It is a physical barrier between the local blood vessels and most parts of the eye itself, and stops many substances including drugs from traveling across it. [2]
The choice of medications may differ depending on the bipolar disorder episode type or if the person is experiencing unipolar or bipolar depression. [ 17 ] [ 143 ] Other factors to consider when deciding on an appropriate treatment approach includes if the person has any comorbidities, their response to previous therapies, adverse effects, and ...
A retinal ganglion cell (RGC) is a type of neuron located near the inner surface (the ganglion cell layer) of the retina of the eye.It receives visual information from photoreceptors via two intermediate neuron types: bipolar cells and retina amacrine cells.
A variety of other agents have been tried in bipolar disorder, including benzodiazepines, calcium channel blockers, L-methylfolate, and thyroid hormone. [2] Modafinil (Provigil) and pramipexole (Mirapex) have been suggested for treating cognitive dysfunction associated with bipolar depression, but evidence supporting their use is quite limited.
Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder have been closely linked due to the similar depressive symptoms and similar monoaminergic systems that have been thought to underlie these conditions. Much of the research for bipolar disorder is done in conjunction with studies of other diseases, most commonly schizophrenia and major depressive ...
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