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Quarks have fractional electric charge values – either (− 1 / 3 ) or (+ 2 / 3 ) times the elementary charge (e), depending on flavor. Up, charm, and top quarks (collectively referred to as up-type quarks) have a charge of + 2 / 3 e; down, strange, and bottom quarks (down-type quarks) have a charge of − 1 / 3 e.
A visual representation of the division order of universal forces. In physical cosmology, the quark epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe when the fundamental interactions of gravitation, electromagnetism, the strong interaction and the weak interaction had taken their present forms, but the temperature of the universe was still too high to allow quarks to bind together ...
In 1964, Gell-Mann and, independently, George Zweig went on to postulate the existence of quarks, particles which make up the hadrons of this scheme. The name "quark" was coined by Gell-Mann, and is a reference to the novel Finnegans Wake, by James Joyce ("Three quarks for Muster Mark!" book 2, episode 4).
The top quark was discovered in 1995 by the CDF [2] and DØ [3] experiments at Fermilab. Like all other quarks, the top quark is a fermion with spin-1/2 and participates in all four fundamental interactions: gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. It has an electric charge of + 2 / 3 e.
The charm quarks are observed bound with charm antiquarks in mesons. The two discovering parties independently assign the discovered meson two different symbols, J and ψ; thus, it becomes formally known as the J/ψ meson. The discovery finally convinces the physics community of the quark model's validity.
It is possible to create all fundamental particles in the standard model, including quarks, leptons and bosons using photons of varying energies above some minimum threshold, whether directly (by pair production), or by decay of the intermediate particle (such as a W − boson decaying to form an electron and an electron-antineutrino).
Archaeologists believe they may have discovered the final location of Noah’s Ark on Turkey’s Mount Ararat. Soil samples from atop the highest peaks in Turkey reveal human activity and marine ...
George Zweig (/ z w aɪ ɡ /; born May 30, 1937) is an American physicist of Russian-Jewish origin. He was trained as a particle physicist under Richard Feynman. [1] He introduced, independently of Murray Gell-Mann, the quark model (although he named it "aces").