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Double-muscled cattle are breeds of cattle that carry one of seven known mutations that limits and reduces the activity of the myostatin protein. Normally, myostatin limits the number of muscle fibers present at birth, and interfering with activity of this protein causes animals to be born with higher numbers of muscle fibers, consequently augmenting muscle growth.
Myostatin (also known as growth differentiation factor 8, abbreviated GDF8) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MSTN gene. [6] Myostatin is a myokine that is produced and released by myocytes and acts on muscle cells to inhibit muscle growth. [7] Myostatin is a secreted growth differentiation factor that is a member of the TGF beta ...
Myostatin-related muscle hypertrophy is a rare genetic condition characterized by reduced body fat and increased skeletal muscle size. [1] Affected individuals have up to twice the usual amount of muscle mass in their bodies, but increases in muscle strength are not usually congruent. [ 2 ]
Myostatin inhibitors are a class of drugs that work by blocking the effect of myostatin, which inhibits muscle growth. In animal models and limited human studies, myostatin inhibitors have increased muscle size. They are being developed to treat obesity, sarcopenia, muscular dystrophy, and other illnesses.
The active-myostatin gene acts as a "governor" on muscle growth; myostatin is a protein that instructs muscles to stop growing. In effect, when inactive, as it is with Piedmontese cattle, it no longer prevents muscle development which is what allows for the hypertrophic condition sometimes referred to as "double muscling". [7]
The definition and use of the term myokine first occurred in 2003. [5] In 2008, the first myokine, myostatin , was identified. [ 4 ] [ 6 ] The gp130 receptor cytokine IL-6 ( Interleukin 6 ) was the first myokine found to be secreted into the blood stream in response to muscle contractions.
Anhedonia and motivational deficits may, for example, be assessed via examining an animal's level of engagement with rewarding stimuli such as sucrose or intracranial self-stimulation. Anxious and irritable symptoms may be assessed with exploratory behavior in the presence of a stressful or novelty environment, such as the open field test ...
Animal psychopathology is the study of mental or behavioral disorders in non-human animals. Historically, there has been an anthropocentric tendency to emphasize the study of animal psychopathologies as models for human mental illnesses. [ 1 ]