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Simplified control circuit of human thermoregulation. [8]The core temperature of a human is regulated and stabilized primarily by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain linking the endocrine system to the nervous system, [9] and more specifically by the anterior hypothalamic nucleus and the adjacent preoptic area regions of the hypothalamus.
The resting human body generates about two-thirds of its heat through metabolism in internal organs in the thorax and abdomen, as well as in the brain. The brain generates about 16% of the total heat produced by the body. [8] Heat loss is a major threat to smaller creatures, as they have a larger ratio of surface area to volume.
The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. It permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body. [1] The muscular systems in vertebrates are controlled through the nervous system although some muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be
ATP is the only type of usable form of chemical energy for musculoskeletal activity. It is stored in most cells, particularly in muscle cells. Other forms of chemical energy, such as those available from oxygen and food, must be transformed into ATP before they can be utilized by the muscle cells.
Muscle also functions to produce body heat. Muscle contraction is responsible for producing 85% of the body's heat. [65] This heat produced is as a by-product of muscular activity, and is mostly wasted. As a homeostatic response to extreme cold, muscles are signaled to trigger contractions of shivering in order to generate heat. [66]
The cycle does generate heat, and may be used to maintain thermal homeostasis, for example in the brown adipose tissue of young mammals, or to generate heat rapidly, for example in insect flight muscles and in hibernating animals during periodical arousal from torpor. It has been reported that the glucose metabolism substrate cycle is not a ...
Because skeletal muscle is unable to utilize the urea cycle to safely dispose of ammonium ions generated in the breakdown of branch chain amino acids, it must get rid of it in a different way. To do so, the ammonium is combined with free α-ketoglutarate via a transamination reaction in the cell, yielding glutamate and α-keto acid.
ATP fuels muscle contractions. [44] Muscle contractions are regulated by signaling pathways, although different muscle types being regulated by specific pathways and stimuli based on their particular function. However, in all muscle types, contraction is performed by the proteins actin and myosin. [45] ATP is initially bound to myosin.
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