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Obfuscation is the obscuring of the intended meaning of communication by making the message difficult to understand, usually with confusing and ambiguous language. The obfuscation might be either unintentional or intentional (although intent usually is connoted), and is accomplished with circumlocution (talking around the subject), the use of jargon (technical language of a profession), and ...
Incomplete comparison – insufficient information is provided to make a complete comparison. Intentionality fallacy – the insistence that the ultimate meaning of an expression must be consistent with the intention of the person from whom the communication originated (e.g. a work of fiction that is widely received as a blatant allegory must ...
Spreading false information can also seriously impede the effective and efficient use of the information available on social media. [121] An emerging trend in the online information environment is "a shift away from public discourse to private, more ephemeral, messaging ", which is a challenge to counter misinformation.
Disinformation attacks involve the intentional spreading of false information, with end goals of misleading, confusing, and encouraging violence, [23] and gaining money, power, or reputation. [24] Disinformation attacks may involve political, economic, and individual actors.
However, in many applications, actually doing an experiment in this way is either prohibitively expensive, infeasible, unethical, illegal, or downright impossible. For example, it is highly unlikely that an IRB would accept an experiment that involved intentionally exposing people to a dangerous substance in order to test its toxicity. The ...
Misleading graphs may be created intentionally to hinder the proper interpretation of data or accidentally due to unfamiliarity with graphing software, misinterpretation of data, or because data cannot be accurately conveyed.
Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky comment in their book Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy of the Mass Media that Orwellian doublespeak is an important component of the manipulation of the English language in American media, through a process called dichotomization, a component of media propaganda involving "deeply embedded double standards in the reporting of news."
Confirmation bias (also confirmatory bias, myside bias, [a] or congeniality bias [2]) is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's prior beliefs or values. [3]