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The dual function of excretory systems is the elimination of the waste products of metabolism and to drain the body of used up and broken down components in a liquid and gaseous state. In humans and other amniotes ( mammals , birds and reptiles ), most of these substances leave the body as urine and to some degree exhalation, mammals also expel ...
Rectal administration (colloquially known as boofing or plugging) uses the rectum as a route of administration for medication and other fluids, which are absorbed by the rectum's blood vessels, [Note 1] and flow into the body's circulatory system, which distributes the drug to the body's organs and bodily systems.
The other elimination pathways are less important in the elimination of drugs, except in very specific cases, such as the respiratory tract for alcohol or anaesthetic gases. The case of mother's milk is of special importance. The liver and kidneys of newly born infants are relatively undeveloped and they are highly sensitive to a drug's toxic ...
Cloaca of a red-tailed hawk. A cloaca (/ k l oʊ ˈ eɪ k ə / ⓘ kloh-AY-kə), pl.: cloacae (/ k l oʊ ˈ eɪ s i / kloh-AY-see or / k l oʊ ˈ eɪ k i / kloh-AY-kee), or vent, is the rear orifice that serves as the only opening for the digestive (), reproductive, and urinary tracts (if present) of many vertebrate animals.
At the anus, there are two anal sphincters which control the exit of feces from the body, the internal anal sphincter and external anal sphincter. The inner sphincter is involuntary and the outer is voluntary. The microscopic precapillary sphincters function to control the blood flow into each capillary in response to local metabolic activity. [1]
The feces expelled can carry diseases, most often through the contamination of food. E. coli is a particular concern. Before toilet training, human feces are most often collected into a diaper. Thereafter, in many societies people commonly defecate into a toilet.
Other factors include the mass transfer coefficient, dialysate flow and dialysate recirculation flow for hemodialysis, and the glomerular filtration rate and the tubular reabsorption rate, for the kidney. A physiologic interpretation of clearance (at steady-state) is that clearance is a ratio of the mass generation and blood (or plasma ...
For example, antibiotics that kill gut bacteria often reduce enterohepatic drug circulation and this requires a temporary increase of the drug's dose until the antibiotic use is discontinued and the gut repopulates with bacteria. This effect of antibiotics on enterohepatic circulation of other drugs is one of several types of drug interactions.