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If a is not divisible by p, that is, if a is coprime to p, then Fermat's little theorem is equivalent to the statement that a p − 1 − 1 is an integer multiple of p, or in symbols: [1] [2] (). For example, if a = 2 and p = 7, then 2 6 = 64, and 64 − 1 = 63 = 7 × 9 is a multiple of 7.
A statistical hypothesis test typically involves a calculation of a test statistic. Then a decision is made, either by comparing the test statistic to a critical value or equivalently by evaluating a p-value computed from the test statistic. Roughly 100 specialized statistical tests have been defined. [1] [2]
A test statistic is the output of a scalar function of all the observations. This statistic provides a single number, such as a t-statistic or an F-statistic. As such, the test statistic follows a distribution determined by the function used to define that test statistic and the distribution of the input observational data.
A normal quantile plot for a simulated set of test statistics that have been standardized to be Z-scores under the null hypothesis. The departure of the upper tail of the distribution from the expected trend along the diagonal is due to the presence of substantially more large test statistic values than would be expected if all null hypotheses were true.
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The updates includes more information on the format and structure of the exam. [6] College Board also put out new testing dates for the AP exams. [7] One major change to the AP exam is that the tests will be completely open-note. [8] Students may use any class notes or other non-human resources for the exam. [9]
It can be seen from the tables that the pass rate (score of 3 or higher) of AP Calculus BC is higher than AP Calculus AB. It can also be noted that about 1/3 as many take the BC exam as take the AB exam. A possible explanation for the higher scores on BC is that students who take AP Calculus BC are more prepared and advanced in math.
Fisher's exact test is a statistical significance test used in the analysis of contingency tables. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Although in practice it is employed when sample sizes are small, it is valid for all sample sizes.
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