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As just one example of the centrality of climatology to the field, leading American climatologist Michael E. Mann is the Director of one of the earliest centers for Earth System science research, the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University, and its mission statement reads, "the Earth System Science Center (ESSC) maintains a ...
Earth's crust and mantle, Mohorovičić discontinuity between bottom of crust and solid uppermost mantle. Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km (1,800 mi), making it the planet's thickest layer. [20] [This is 45% of the 6,371 km (3,959 mi) radius, and 83.7% of the volume - 0.6% of the volume is the crust].
The Encyclopedia of Earth (abbreviated EoE) is an electronic reference about the Earth, its natural environments, and their interaction with society.The Encyclopedia is described as a free, fully searchable collection of articles written by scholars, professionals, educators, and other approved [who?] experts, who collaborate and review each other's work.
The five components of the climate system all interact. They are the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere. [1]: 1451 Earth's climate system is a complex system with five interacting components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things).
Systems geology emphasizes the nature of geology as a system – that is, as a set of interacting parts that function as a whole. [1] [2] [3] The systems approach involves study of the linkages or interfaces between the component objects and processes at all levels of detail in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the solid Earth.
The cryosphere describes those portions of Earth's surface where water is in solid form. Frozen water is found on the Earth's surface primarily as snow cover, freshwater ice in lakes and rivers, sea ice, glaciers, ice sheets, and frozen ground and permafrost (permanently frozen ground). The cryosphere is one of five components of the climate ...
The anthroposphere is the youngest of all the Earth's spheres, yet has made an enormous impact on the Earth and its systems in a very short time. [ 5 ] Some consider the term anthroposphere to be synonymous with the noosphere , though the noosphere is often used to refer specifically to the sphere of rational human thought, or ‘the ...
The top of the mesosphere, called the mesopause, is the coldest part of Earth's atmosphere. [8] Temperatures in the upper mesosphere fall as low as about −100 °C (173 K; −148 °F), [ 9 ] varying according to latitude and season .